Preface ........................................................ XV
List of Contributors ......................................... XVII
1 Polyesters ................................................... 1
Adam L. Sisson, Michael Schroeter, and Andreas Lendlein
1.1 Historical Background ................................... 1
1.2 Preparative Methods ..................................... 3
1.3 Physical Properties ..................................... 7
1.4 Degradation Mechanisms ................................. 12
1.5 Beyond Classical Poly(Hydroxycarboxylic Acids) ......... 14
References .................................................. 17
2 Biotechnologically Produced Biodegradable Polyesters ........ 23
Jaciane Lutz Ienczak and Gláucia Maria Falcão de Aragão
2.1 Introduction ........................................... 23
2.2 History ................................................ 24
2.3 Polyhydroxyalkanoates - Granules Morphology ............ 26
2.4 Biosynthesis and Biodegradability of Poly
(3-Hydroxybutyrate) and Other Polyhydroxyalkanoates .... 29
2.1 Polyhydroxyalkanoates Biosynthesis on Microorganisms ... 29
2.5 Extraction and Recovery ................................ 34
2.6 Physical, Mechanical, and Thermal Properties of
Polyhydroxyalkanoates .................................. 36
2.7 Future Directions ...................................... 37
References .................................................. 38
3 Polyan hydrides ............................................. 45
Avi Domb, Jay Prakash Jain, and Neeraj Kumar
3.1 Introduction ........................................... 45
3.2 Types of Polyanhydride ................................. 46
3.3 Synthesis .............................................. 55
3.4 Properties ............................................. 58
3.5 In Vitro Degradation and Erosion of Polyanhydrides ..... 63
3.6 In Vivo Degradation and Elimination of
Polyanhydrides ......................................... 64
3.7 Toxicological Aspects of Polyanhydrides ................ 65
3.8 Fabrication of Delivery Systems ........................ 67
3.9 Production and World Market ............................ 68
3.10 Biomedical Applications ................................ 68
References .................................................. 71
4 Poly(Ortho Esters) .......................................... 77
Jorge Heller
4.1 Introduction ........................................... 77
4.2 РОЕ II ................................................. 79
4.3 РОЕ IV ................................................. 82
4.4 Solid Polymers ......................................... 86
4.5 Gel-Like Materials ..................................... 96
4.6 Polymers Based on an Alternate Diketene Acetal ........ 102
4.7 Conclusions ........................................... 104
References ................................................. 104
5 Biodegradable Polymers Composed of Naturally Occurring
α-Amino Acids .............................................. 107
Ramaz Katsarava and Zaza Gomurashvili
5.1 Introduction .......................................... 107
5.2 Amino Acid-Based Biodegradable Polymers (AABBPs) ...... 109
5.3 Conclusion and Perspectives ........................... 126
References ................................................. 127
6 Biodegradable Polyurethanes and Poly (ester amide)s ........ 133
Alfonso Rodríguez-Galán, Lourdes Franco, and Jordi
Puiggalí
Abbreviations ......................................... 133
6.1 Chemistry and Properties of Biodegradable
Polyurethanes ......................................... 134
6.2 Biodegradation Mechanisms of Polyurethanes ............ 140
6.3 Applications of Biodegradable Polyurethanes ........... 142
6.4 New Polymerization Trends to Obtain Degradable
Polyurethanes ......................................... 145
6.5 Aliphatic Poly(ester amide)s: A Family of
Biodegradable Thermoplastics with Interest as New
Biomaterials .......................................... 149
Acknowledgments ............................................ 152
References ................................................. 152
7 Carbohydrates .............................................. 155
Gerald Dräger, Andreas Krause, Lena Möller, and Severian
Dumitriu
7.1 Introduction .......................................... 155
7.2 Alginate .............................................. 156
7.3 Carrageenan ........................................... 160
7.4 Cellulose and Its Derivatives ......................... 162
7.5 Microbial Cellulose ................................... 164
7.6 Chitin and Chitosan ................................... 165
7.7 Dextran ............................................... 169
7.8 Gellan ................................................ 171
7.9 Guar Gum .............................................. 174
7.10 Hyaluronic Acid (Hyaluronan) .......................... 176
7.11 Pullulan .............................................. 180
7.12 Scleroglucan .......................................... 182
7.13 Xanthan ............................................... 184
7.14 Summary ............................................... 186
Acknowledgments ............................................ 187
In Memoriam ................................................ 187
References ................................................. 187
8 Biodegradable Shape-Memory Polymers ........................ 195
Marc Behl, Jörg Zotzmann, Michael Schroeter, and Andreas
Lendlein
8.1 Introduction .......................................... 195
8.2 General Concept of SMPs ............................... 197
8.3 Classes of Degradable SMPs ............................ 201
8.4 Applications of Biodegradable SMPs .................... 209
9 Biodegradable Elastic Hydrogels for Tissue Expander
Application ................................................ 217
Thanh Huyen Tran, John Garner, Yourong Fu, Kinam Park,
and Kang Moo Huh
9.1 Introduction .......................................... 217
9.2 Synthesis of Elastic Hydrogels ........................ 220
9.3 Physical Properties of Elastic Hydrogels .............. 225
9.4 Applications of Elastic Hydrogels ..................... 229
9.5 Elastic Hydrogels for Tissue Expander Applications .... 231
9.6 Conclusion ............................................ 233
References ................................................. 234
10 Biodegradable Dendrimers and Dendritic Polymers ............ 237
Jayant Khandare and Sanjay Kumar
10.1 Introduction ...........................237
10.2 Challenges for Designing Biodegradable Dendrimers ..... 240
10.3 Design of Self-Immolative Biodegradable Dendrimers .... 245
10.4 Biological Implications of Biodegradable Dendrimers ... 256
10.5 Future Perspectives of Biodegradable Dendrimers ....... 259
10.6 Concluding Remarks .................................... 259
References ................................................. 260
11 Analytical Methods for Monitoring Biodegradation
Processes of Environmentally Degradable Polymers ........... 263
Maarten van der Zee
11.1 Introduction .......................................... 263
11.2 Some Background ....................................... 263
11.3 Defining Biodegradability ............................. 265
11.4 Mechanisms of Polymer Degradation ..................... 266
11.5 Measuring Biodegradation of Polymers .................. 267
11.6 Conclusions ........................................... 275
References ................................................. 276
12 Modeling and Simulation of Microbial Depolymerization
Processes of Xenobiotic Polymers ........................... 283
Masaji Watanabe and Fusako Kawai
12.1 Introduction .......................................... 283
12.2 Analysis of Exogenous Depolymerization ................ 284
12.3 Materials and Methods ................................. 287
12.4 Analysis of Endogenous Depolymerization ............... 295
12.5 Discussion ............................................ 306
Acknowledgments ............................................ 307
References ................................................. 307
13 Regenerative Medicine: Reconstruction of Tracheal and
Pharyngeal Mucosal Defects in Head and Neck Surgery ........ 309
Dorothee Rickert, Bernhard Hiebl, Rosemarie Fuhrmann,
Friedrich Jung, Andreas Lendlein, and Ralf-Peter Franke
13.1 Introduction .......................................... 309
13.2 Regenerative Medicine for the Reconstruction of the
Upper Aerodigestive Tract ............................. 311
13.3 Methods and Novel Therapeutical Options in Head and
Neck Surgery .......................................... 321
13.4 Vascularization of Tissue-Engineered Constructs ....... 328
13.5 Application of Stem Cells in Regenerative Medicine .... 329
13.6 Conclusion ............................................ 331
References ................................................. 331
14 Biodegradable Polymers as Scaffolds for Tissue
Engineering ................................................ 341
Yoshito Ikada
Abbreviations ......................................... 341
14.1 Introduction .......................................... 341
14.2 Short Overview of Regenerative Biology ................ 342
14.3 Minimum Requirements for Tissue Engineering ........... 348
14.4 Structure of Scaffolds ................................ 352
14.5 Biodegradable Polymers for Tissue Engineering ......... 354
14.6 Some Examples for Clinical Application of Scaffold .... 357
14.7 Conclusions ........................................... 361
References ................................................. 361
15 Drug Delivery Systems ...................................... 363
Kevin M. Shakesheff
15.1 Introduction .......................................... 363
15.2 The Clinical Need for Drug Delivery Systems ........... 364
15.3 Poly(a-Hydroxyl Acids) ................................ 365
15.4 Polyanhydrides ........................................ 368
15.5 Manufacturing Routes .................................. 370
15.6 Examples of Biodegradable Polymer Drug Delivery
Systems Under Development ............................. 371
15.7 Concluding Remarks .................................... 376
References ................................................. 376
16 Oxo-biodegradable Polymers: Present Status and Future
Perspectives ............................................... 379
Emo Chiellini, Andrea Corti, Salvatore D'Antone, and
David Mckeen Wiles
16.1 Introduction .......................................... 379
16.2 Controlled-Lifetime Plastics .......................... 380
16.3 The Abiotic Oxidation of Polyolefms ................... 382
16.4 Enhanced Oxo-biodegradation of Polyolefins ............ 387
16.5 Processability and Recovery of Oxo-biodegradable
Polyolefins ........................................... 395
16.6 Concluding Remarks .................................... 396
References ................................................. 397
Index ......................................................... 399
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