Foreword ...................................................... XIX
Preface ....................................................... XXI
List of Contributors .......................................... XXV
Fuel Cell Basics
1 Electrocatalysis and Catalyst Degradation Challenges in
Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells .......................... 3
Hubert A. Gasteiger, Daniel R. Baker, Robert N. Carter,
Wenbin Gu, Yuxin Liu, Frederick T. Wagner, and Paul T. Yu
Abstract ..................................................... 3
1.1 Introduction ............................................ 3
1.2 Voltage Losses in State-of-the-Art Automotive РЕМ Fuel
Cells ................................................... 4
1.3 Catalyst Development Needs and Approaches ............... 6
1.4 Catalyst Degradation via Platinum Dissolution .......... 10
1.5 Carbon-Support Corrosion ............................... 11
1.6 Conclusion ............................................. 14
References .................................................. 14
2 High-Temperature РЕМ Fuel Cells: Electrolytes, Cells, and
Stacks ...................................................... 17
Christoph Wannek
Abstract .................................................... 17
2.1 Introduction ........................................... 17
2.2 Approaches to Increase the Operating Temperature of
Sulfonated Membranes ................................... 19
2.3 HT-PEFCs with Phosphoric Acid-Based
Polybenzimidazole-Type Membranes ....................... 23
2.4 Alternative Liquid Electrolytes ........................ 33
2.5 Acidic Salts and Oxides ................................ 35
2.6 Conclusion ............................................. 36
References .................................................. 37
3 Current Status of and Recent Developments in Direct Liquid
Fuel Cells .................................................. 41
Jürgen Mergel, Andreas Glüsen, and Christoph Wannek
Abstract .................................................... 41
3.1 Introduction ........................................... 41
3.2 Direct Methanol Fuel Cells ............................. 44
3.3 Direct Ethanol Fuel Cells .............................. 55
3.4 Conclusion ............................................. 57
References .................................................. 57
4 High-Temperature Fuel Cell Technology ....................... 61
Gael P.G. Corre and John T.S. Irvine
Abstract .................................................... 61
4.1 Introduction ........................................... 61
4.2 Solid Oxide Fuel Cell .................................. 65
4.3 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell ............................. 78
4.4 Thermodynamics of Fuel Cells ........................... 78
4.5 Fuel Cell Efficiency ................................... 80
References .................................................. 85
5 Advanced Modeling in Fuel Cell Systems: a Review of
Modeling Approaches ......................................... 89
Matthew M. Mench
Abstract .................................................... 89
5.1 Introduction ........................................... 89
5.2 State-of-the-Art Computational Models for Low-
Temperature Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cell Systems ...... 98
5.3 Case Study of Water Management in PEFCs ............... 102
5.4 Future Research Needs ................................. 112
Acknowledgments ............................................ 113
References ................................................. 113
Fuel Infrastructures
6 Hydrogen Distribution Infrastructure for an Energy
System: Present Status and Perspectives of Technologies .... 121
Françoise Barbier
Abstract ................................................... 121
6.1 Introduction .......................................... 121
6.2 Hydrogen Transport by Gaseous Pipelines ............... 123
6.3 Hydrogen Transport by Road ............................ 129
6.4 Alternative Hydrogen Delivery Systems ................. 133
6.5 Stationary Bulk Storage of Hydrogen ................... 134
6.6 Supporting Technologies ............................... 336
6.7 Hydrogen Fueling Stations ............................. 141
6.8 Conclusion ............................................ 145
References ................................................. 146
7 Fuel Provision for Early Market Applications ............... 149
Manfred Fischedick and Andreas Pastowski
Abstract ................................................... 149
7.1 Introduction: Hydrogen Supply Today and Tomorrow ...... 149
7.2 Balancing New Applications and Hydrogen Supply ........ 151
7.3 Criteria for Fuel Supply - Short- and Long-Term
Requirements
7.4 Hydrogen Production and Distribution .................. 156
7.5 Conclusion ............................................ 164
References ................................................. 165
Hydrogen Production Technologies
8 Non-Thermal Production of Pure Hydrogen from Biomass:
HYVOLUTION ................................................. 169
Pieternel A.M. Claassen, Truus de Vrije, Emmanuel G.
Koukios, Ed W.J. van Niel, Ebru Özgür, Inci Eroǧlu,
Isabella Nowik, Michael Modigell, Walter Wukovits, Anton
Friedl, Dominik Ochs, and Werner Ahrer
Abstract ................................................... 169
8.1 Introduction .......................................... 169
8.2 State of the Art ...................................... 171
8.3 Methodology ........................................... 171
8.4 The Project's Current Relation to the State of the
Art ................................................... 174
8.5 Conclusion ............................................ 185
Acknowledgments ............................................ 185
References ................................................. 185
9 Thermochemical Cycles ...................................... 189
Christian Sattler
Abstract ................................................... 189
9.1 Introduction .......................................... 189
9.2 Historical Development ................................ 190
9.3 State of Work ......................................... 191
9.4 Conclusion and Outlook ................................ 202
Abbreviations .............................................. 203
References ................................................. 203
10 Hydrogen Production: Fundamentals and Case Study
Summaries .................................................. 207
Kevin W. Harrison, Robert Remick, Gregory D. Martin, and
Aaron Hoskin
Abstract ................................................... 207
10.1 Heating Value, Heat of Reaction, and Free Energy ...... 207
10.2 Heat of Formation and Free Energy of Formation ........ 209
10.3 Calculating Fuel Cell System Efficiency ............... 210
10.4 Water Electrolysis .................................... 213
10.5 Case Studies of Wind/Hydrogen Projects ................ 217
10.6 Conclusion ............................................ 225
Acronyms and Abbreviations ................................. 225
Acknowledgment ............................................. 226
References ................................................. 226
11 High-Temperature Water Electrolysis Using Planar Solid
Oxide Fuel Cell Technology: a Review ....................... 227
Mohsine Zahid, Josef Schefold, and Annabelle Brisse
Abstract ................................................... 227
11.1 Introduction to High-Temperature Electrolysis ......... 228
11.2 History of High Temperature Steam Electrolysis ........ 230
11.3 Solid Oxide Electrolyzer Cells ........................ 233
11.4 Solid Oxide Electrolyzer Stacks ....................... 239
11.5 Conclusion ............................................ 240
References ................................................. 241
12 Alkaline Electrolysis - Introduction and Overview .......... 243
Detlef Stolten and Dennis Krieg
Abstract ................................................... 243
12.1 Introduction .......................................... 243
12.2 Definition ............................................ 244
12.3 The Principle ......................................... 244
12.4 History ............................................... 246
12.5 Basics of Electrolysis ................................ 249
12.6 Technical Alkaline Concepts ........................... 254
12.7 Status of Technology .................................. 265
12.8 Conclusion ............................................ 266
Acknowledgments ............................................ 267
References ................................................. 267
13 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (РЕМ) Water Electrolysis ...... 271
Tom Smolinka, Sebastian Rau, and Christopher Hebling
Abstract ................................................... 271
13.1 Introduction .......................................... 271
13.2 Fundamentals of РЕМ Electrolysis ...................... 272
13.3 Membrane Electrode Assembly ........................... 278
13.4 Current Collectors, Bipolar Plates, and Stack
Design ................................................ 280
13.5 System Design ......................................... 285
13.6 Conclusion ............................................ 286
13.7 Symbols and Abbreviations ............................. 287
References ................................................. 288
14 Reforming and Gasification - Fossil Energy Carriers ........ 291
Jens Rostrup-Nielsen
Abstract ................................................... 291
14.1 Introduction. The Need for H2 ......................... 291
14.2 Basic Technologies .................................... 292
14.3 Process Schemes ....................................... 296
14.4 Hydrogen from Coal .................................... 301
14.5 Conclusion ............................................ 303
References ................................................. 303
15 Reforming and Gasification - Biomass ....................... 307
Achim Schaadt, Siegfried W. Rapp, and Christopher Hebling
Abstract ................................................... 307
15.1 Introduction .......................................... 307
15.2 Gasification of Biomass ............................... 308
References ................................................. 318
16 State of the Art of Ceramic Membranes for Hydrogen
Separation ................................................. 321
Wilhelm-A. Meulenberg, Mariya E. Ivanova, Tim van Gestel,
Martin Bram, Hans-Peter Buchkremer, Detlev Stöver, and
José M. Serra
Abstract ................................................... 321
16.1 Introduction .......................................... 321
16.2 Microporous Membranes for H2 Separation ............... 322
16.3 Dense Ceramic Membranes for H2 Separation ............. 333
16.4 Conclusion and Outlook ................................ 344
Acknowledgments ............................................ 346
References ................................................. 346
17 Hydrogen System Assessment: Recent Trends and Insights ..... 353
Joan M. Ogden .............................................. 351
Abstract ................................................... 351
17.1 Introduction .......................................... 352
17.2 Survey of Hydrogen System Assessment Models: Recent
Trends and Insights ................................... 354
17.3 Towards a Comprehensive Framework for Hydrogen
Systems Analysis ...................................... 367
References ................................................. 368
Storages
18 Physical Hydrogen Storage Technologies - a Current
Overview ................................................... 377
Bert Hobein and Roland Krüger
Abstract ................................................... 377
18.1 Introduction .......................................... 377
18.2 General Overview ...................................... 377
18.3 Fuel System Design and Specifications ................. 382
18.4 Conclusion ............................................ 393
References ................................................. 393
19 Metal Hydrides ............................................. 395
Etsuo Akiba
Abstract ................................................... 395
19.1 Introduction .......................................... 395
19.2 Part I: Fundamentals of Metal Hydrides for Hydrogen
Storage ............................................... 396
19.3 Part II: Applications of Metal Hydrides ............... 404
19.4 Conclusion ............................................ 411
References ................................................. 412
20 Complex Hydrides ........................................... 415
Andreas Borgschulte, Robin Gremaud, Oliver Friedrichs,
Philippe Mauron, Arndt Remhof, and Andreas Züttel
Abstract ................................................... 415
20.1 Introduction .......................................... 415
20.2 The Structure of Complex Hydrides ..................... 439
20.3 Thermodynamics of Complex Hydrides .................... 420
20.4 Organic Hydrides for Hydrogen Storage ................. 424
20.5 Hydrogen Storage Systems Using Complex and Organic
Hydrides .............................................. 425
References ................................................. 427
21 Adsorption Technologies .................................... 431
Barbara Schmitz and Michael Hirscher
Abstract ................................................... 431
21.1 Adsorption ............................................ 431
21.2 History of Adsorption ................................. 432
21.3 Hydrogen Adsorption ................................... 432
21.4 Materials ............................................. 433
21.5 Hydrogen Storage ...................................... 436
21.6 Total Storage Capacity ................................ 439
21.7 Conclusion ............................................ 441
References ................................................. 441
Policy Perspectives, Initiatives and Cooperations
22 National Strategies and Programs ........................... 449
Jörg Schindler
Abstract ................................................... 449
22.1 The Imminent Transition to a Postfossil Energy
World ................................................. 449
22.2 The Role of Secondary Energy Carriers ................. 454
22.3 Hydrogen in Transport ................................. 455
22.4 National Strategies and Programs ...................... 456
22.5 Conclusion ............................................ 462
Acknowledgment ............................................. 462
References ................................................. 463
23 Renewable Hydrogen Production .............................. 465
Alan C. Lloyd, Ed Pike, and Anil Baral
Abstract ................................................... 465
23.1 Introduction .......................................... 465
23.2 Rationale for Renewable Hydrogen ...................... 465
23.3 Renewable Hydrogen Pathways ........................... 472
23.4 Renewable Hydrogen Policy Drivers ..................... 480
23.5 Conclusion ............................................ 484
Acknowledgment ............................................. 485
References ................................................. 486
24 Environmental Impact of Hydrogen Technologies .............. 489
Ibrahim Dincer and T. Nejat Veziroglu
Abstract ................................................... 489
24.1 Introduction .......................................... 489
24.2 Sustainable Development ............................... 490
24.3 Sustainable Development and Thermodynamic
Principles ............................................ 493
24.4 Hydrogen Versus Fossil Fuels .......................... 497
24.5 Future Energy Systems ................................. 505
24.6 Case Study I .......................................... 507
24.7 Case Study II ......................................... 515
24.8 Conclusion ............................................ 524
Acknowledgments ............................................ 524
Nomenclature ............................................... 524
References ................................................. 526
Strategic Analyses
25 Research and Development Targets and Priorities ............ 533
Clemens Alexander Trudewind and Hermann-Josef Wagner
Abstract ................................................... 533
25.1 Introduction .......................................... 533
25.2 Procedure ............................................. 534
25.3 Scenarios ............................................. 534
25.4 Investigation of Technologies ......................... 536
25.5 Conclusion ............................................ 546
Acknowledgments ............................................ 547
References ................................................. 548
26 Life Cycle Analysis and Economic Impact .................... 551
Ulrich Wagner, Michael Beer, Jochen Habermann, and
Philipp Pfeifroth
Abstract ................................................... 551
26.1 Introduction .......................................... 551
26.2 Definitions and Methodology ........................... 552
26.3 Extraction, Conversion, and Distribution of Fuels ..... 553
26.4 Results of Process Chain Analyses ..................... 555
26.5 Conclusion ............................................ 563
References ................................................. 564
27 Strategic and Socioeconomic Studies in Hydrogen Energy ..... 567
David Hart
Abstract ................................................... 567
27.1 Introduction .......................................... 567
27.2 Defining Socioeconomics ............................... 568
27.3 Examples .............................................. 569
27.4 Economic Analysis ..................................... 569
27.5 Visions and Futures ................................... 570
27.6 Social Behavior ....................................... 571
27.7 Drivers and Barriers .................................. 572
27.8 Finance ............................................... 572
27.9 Business .............................................. 573
27.10 Conclusion ........................................... 574
Further Reading ............................................ 574
28 Market Introduction for Hydrogen and Fuel Cell
Technologies ............................................... 577
Marianne Haug and Hanns-Joachim Neef
Abstract ................................................... 577
28.1 Introduction .......................................... 577
28.2 Market Introduction of Radical Innovations: What Do
We Know from the Literature? .......................... 579
28.3 The Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Road Maps: from Visions
to Public/Private Coalitions .......................... 581
28.4 International Cooperation: Value Added During Market
Introduction? ......................................... 583
28.5 Market Introduction: The Status Quo ................... 584
28.6 Conclusion: Co-evolution of Technology and Policy ..... 593
References ................................................. 594
29 Hydrogen and Fuel Cells around the Corner - the Role of
Regions and Municipalities Towards Commercialization ....... 597
Andreas Ziolek, Marieke Reijalt, and Thomas Kattenstein
Abstract ................................................... 597
29.1 Introduction .......................................... 597
29.2 The Role of Regional and Local Activities ............. 599
29.3 HyRaMP - Organizing Local and Regional Drivers in
Europe ................................................ 604
29.4 Conclusion ............................................ 605
References ................................................. 606
30 Zero Regio: Recent Experience with Hydrogen Vehicles and
Refueling Infrastructure ................................... 609
Heinrich Lienkamp and Ashok Rastogi
Abstract ................................................... 609
30.1 Introduction .......................................... 610
30.2 Hydrogen Production and Quality ....................... 611
30.3 Refueling Infrastructure .............................. 614
30.4 FCV Fleets and Demonstration .......................... 620
30.5 Socioeconomic Investigations .......................... 623
30.6 Dissemination ......................................... 623
30.7 Conclusion ............................................ 624
Acknowledgments ............................................ 625
References ................................................. 626
Safety Issues
31 Safety Analysis of Hydrogen Vehicles and Infrastructure .... 629
Thomas Jordan and Wolfgang Breitung
Abstract ................................................... 629
31.1 Motivation of Hydrogen-Specific Safety
Investigations ........................................ 630
31.2 Phenomena ............................................. 631
31.3 Safety Analysis Procedures ............................ 635
31.4 Scenarios ............................................. 637
31.5 Outlook ............................................... 643
References ................................................. 644
Further Reading ............................................ 647
32 Advancing Commercialization of Hydrogen and Fuel Cell
Technologies Through International Cooperation of
Regulations, Codes, and Standards (RCS) .................... 649
Randy Dey
Abstract ................................................... 649
32.1 Introduction .......................................... 649
32.2 Hydrogen - a Part of the New Energy Mix ............... 650
32.3 Regulations, Codes, and Standards (RCS) ............... ---
a Necessary Step to Commercialization ...................... 650
32.4 International RCS Bodies - Responsible for the
Standardization of Hydrogen and Fuel Cell
Technologies .......................................... 651
32.5 International Cooperation in RCS ...................... 652
32.6 International Cooperation Between RCS and Pre-
Normative Research (PNR) .............................. 653
32.7 Hydrogen Refueling Stations (HRS) ..................... 653
32.8 Conclusion ............................................ 655
Definitions ................................................ 655
References ................................................. 656
Existing and Emerging Markets
33 Aerospace Applications of Hydrogen and Fuel Cells .......... 661
Christian Roessler, Joachim Schoemann, and Horst Baier
Abstract ................................................... 661
33.1 Introduction and Overview of Hydrogen and Fuel Cell
Use ................................................... 661
33.2 Possible Fuel Cell Types for Aviation ................. 663
33.3 Application in Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) ........ 664
33.4 Applications in General Aviation ...................... 670
33.5 Application to Commercial Transport Aircraft .......... 674
33.6 Conclusion ............................................ 677
References ................................................. 678
34 Auxiliary Power Units for Light-Duty Vehicles, Trucks,
Ships, and Airplanes ....................................... 681
Ralf Peters
Abstract ................................................... 681
34.1 Operating Conditions for Auxiliary Power Units ........ 681
34.2 System Design ......................................... 691
34.3 Present Status of Fuel Cell-Based APU Systems ......... 703
34.4 System Evaluation ..................................... 708
34.5 Conclusion ............................................ 709
Acknowledgments ............................................ 709
References ................................................. 710
35 Portable Applications and Light Traction ................... 715
Jürgen Garche
Abstract ................................................... 715
35.1 Introduction .......................................... 715
35.2 Demand on Fuel Cells for Portable Applications ........ 716
35.3 Fuel Cell Technology .................................. 717
35.4 Fuel .................................................. 720
35.5 Applications .......................................... 721
References ................................................. 732
Stationary Applications
36 High-Temperature Fuel Cells in Decentralized Power
Generation ................................................. 735
Robert Steinberger-Wilckens and Niels Christiansen
Abstract ................................................... 735
36.1 Introduction .......................................... 735
36.2 Distributed Generation as a Tool to Improve the
Efficiency of Electricity Provision ................... 736
36.3 Fuel Cells in Distributed Generation .................. 739
36.4 Designing for High Efficiency ......................... 741
36.5 Developments in the United States ..................... 744
36.6 Asian and Pacific Developments ........................ 746
36.7 European Developments ................................. 748
36.8 Economic Prospects in DG Fuel Cell Development ........ 750
36.9 Outlook ............................................... 751
References ................................................. 751
37 Fuel Cells for Buildings ................................... 755
John F. Elter
Abstract ................................................... 755
37.1 Introduction .......................................... 755
37.2 Voice of the Customer 37.2 Voice of the Customer ...... 758
37.3 Fuel Cell Basics and Types 37.3 Fuel Cell Basics and
Types ................................................. 761
37.4 Recent Advances ....................................... 768
37.5 Fuel Cell Systems ..................................... 772
37.6 System Control ........................................ 784
37.7 Conclusion ............................................ 785
References ................................................. 786
Transportation Applications
38 Fuel Cell Power Trains ..................................... 793
Peter Froeschle and Jörg Wind
Abstract ................................................... 793
38.1 Introduction .......................................... 793
38.2 Layout and Functionality of the Fuel Cell Hybrid
Power Train ........................................... 795
38.3 Technological Leaders of Fuel Cell Drive Train
Development ........................................... 799
38.4 Next Milestones on the Way to Commercialization ....... 808
38.5 Future Outlook ........................................ 809
References ................................................. 809
39 Hydrogen Internal Combustion Engines ....................... 811
H. Eichlseder, P. Grahner, and R. Heindl
Abstract ................................................... 811
39.1 A History ............................................. 811
39.2 State of the Art ...................................... 814
39.3 New Concepts .......................................... 818
39.4 Future Perspectives ................................... 825
39.5 Conclusion ............................................ 829
References ................................................. 829
40 Systems Analysis and Well-to-Wheel Studies ................. 831
Thomas Grube, Bernd Höhlein, Christoph Stiller, and
Werner Weindorf
Abstract ................................................... 831
40.1 Introduction .......................................... 831
40.2 Platinum Group Metal Requirements for Fuel Cell
Systems ............................................... 832
40.3 Dynamic Powertrain Simulation ......................... 836
40.4 Well-to-Wheel Studies ................................. 841
Abbreviations .............................................. 849
Symbols .................................................... 850
References ................................................. 850
41 Electrification in Transportation Systems .................. 853
Arndt Freialdenhoven and Henning Wallentowitz
Abstract ................................................... 853
41.1 Driving Forces for Electric Mobility .................. 853
4l.2 Design of Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) ............ 856
41.3 Requirements on Players ............................... 869
41.4 Conclusion ............................................ 872
References ................................................. 873
Index ......................................................... 875
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