Glassley W.E. Geothermal energy: renewable energy and the environment. - Boca Raton; London: CRC, 2010. - xxi, 290 p., [8] p. of plates: ill. (some col.), maps (chiefly col.). - Incl. bibl. ref. and indexes. - ISBN 978-1-4200-7570-0  Место хранения:   070 | Институт систем энергетики им. Л.А.Мелентьева CO РАН | Иркутск | Библиотека

Оглавление / Contents

Series Editor's Preface ........................................ xi Preface ........................................................ xv Acknowledgments .............................................. xvii Series Editor ................................................. xix Author ........................................................ xxi Chapter 1 Introduction ......................................... 1 The Global Energy Landscape ..................................... 1 The Historical Role of Fuel .................................. 1 The Impact of Population Growth and per Capita Energy Use .... 2 Fuel Emissions and Environmental Considerations .............. 3 Geothermal Energy as a Renewable Energy Source .................. 4 No Fuel, Few Emissions ....................................... 4 Geothermal Energy Is a Flexible Energy Resource .............. 5 Electrical Demand and the Characteristics of Geothermal Energy .......................................................... 7 Generating Electrical Power for the Grid ..................... 7 Generating Electrical Power for Local Use .................... 8 How This Book Is Organized ...................................... 8 Synopsis ........................................................ 8 References ...................................................... 9 Further Information Sources ..................................... 9 Chapter 2 Sources of Geothermal Heat: Earth as a Heat Engine .............................................. 11 Origin of Earth's Heat ......................................... 11 Heat from Formation of the Core ............................. 11 Heat from Radioactive Decay of Long-Lived Isotopes .......... 12 Transfer of Heat in the Earth .................................. 14 Radiation ................................................... 14 Conduction .................................................. 15 Convection .................................................. 19 Plate Tectonics and the Distribution of Geothermal Resources ... 20 Availability and Utilization of Geothermal Energy .............. 23 Synopsis ....................................................... 26 Case Studies ................................................... 26 Spreading Centers ........................................... 26 Subduction Zones ............................................ 27 Hot Spots ................................................... 27 References ..................................................... 28 Further Information ............................................ 29 Chapter 3 Thermodynamics and Geothermal Systems ................ 31 The First Law of Thermodynamics: The Equivalence of Heat and Work and the Conservation of Energy ............................ 31 Conservation of Energy ...................................... 31 Internal Energy .......................................... 31 PV Work .................................................. 33 Enthalpy ................................................. 33 The Second Law of Thermodynamics: The Inevitable Increase of Entropy ........................................................ 34 Efficiency .................................................. 34 Carnot Cycle ................................................ 34 Heat Capacity ............................................... 35 Entropy ..................................................... 37 Gibbs Function and Gibbs Energy (AG) ........................... 38 The Standard State .......................................... 39 Thermodynamic Efficiency ....................................... 40 Case Study: The Thermodynamic Properties of Water and Rock- Water Interaction .............................................. 41 Synopsis ....................................................... 47 References ..................................................... 47 Further Information ............................................ 48 Chapter 4 Subsurface Fluid Flow: The Hydrology of Geothermal Systems ............................................. 51 A General Model for Subsurface Fluid Flow ...................... 51 Matrix Porosity and Permeability ............................... 51 Definition of Matrix Permeability ........................... 54 The Kozeny-Carman Equation .................................. 55 Hydraulic Conductivity ...................................... 55 Fracture Porosity and Permeability ............................. 55 Fracture Permeability ....................................... 56 Fracture Transmissivity ..................................... 57 Effect of Depth on Porosity and Permeability ................... 58 Hydrologic Properties of Real Geothermal Systems ............... 60 Case Study: Long Valley Caldera ................................ 61 Synopsis ....................................................... 65 References ..................................................... 65 Further Information ............................................ 66 Chapter 5 Chemistry of Geothermal Fluids ...................... 69 Why the Geochemistry of Geothermal Fluids Matters .............. 69 Water as a Chemical Agent ...................................... 70 Components and Chemical Systems ................................ 72 Chemical Potentials, μ, and Gibbs Energy .................... 72 Activity, α ................................................. 74 Saturation and The Law of Mass Action .......................... 74 Equilibrium Constants ....................................... 74 Activity Coefficients, γ .................................... 75 Affinity .................................................... 76 Ion Exchange ................................................ 77 Kinetics of Geothermal Reactions ............................... 78 Gases in Geothermal Fluids ..................................... 80 Gas Partitioning between Liquid and Vapor ................... 81 Fluid Flow and Mixing in Natural Systems ....................... 83 Simulating Reactive Transport .................................. 84 Case Study: The Silica System .................................. 85 Synopsis ....................................................... 86 References ..................................................... 87 Chapter 6 Exploring for Geothermal Systems .................... 91 Field Geology and Surface Manifestations ....................... 91 Volcanoes: Active and Dormant ............................... 91 Faulting and Associated Rock Alteration ..................... 92 Surface Deposits ............................................ 93 Geochemistry as an Exploration Tool ............................ 95 Fluid Composition and Geothermometry ........................ 95 Isotopes ................................................... 100 Geophysics as an Exploration Tool ............................. 104 Aeromagnetic Surveys ....................................... 104 Resistivity and Magnetotelluric Surveys .................... 105 Gravity Surveys ............................................ 107 Seismicity and Reflection Seismology ....................... 108 Temperature Measurements ................................... 110 Remote Sensing as an Exploration Tool: A Promising New Technique ..................................................... 111 Multispectral Studies ...................................... 111 Case Study: Fallon, Nevada .................................... 113 Synposis ...................................................... 115 References .................................................... 116 Further Information ........................................... 118 Chapter 7 Resource Assessments ............................... 119 Assessing a Geothermal Resource ............................... 119 Resource Base and Reserves .................................... 120 Uncertainty ................................................ 120 Establishing the Reservoir Volume ............................. 122 Establishing the Reservoir Heat Content ....................... 123 The Significance of Heat Capacity ............................. 125 Efficiency of Heat Extraction ................................. 126 Case Study: Establishing the United States Geothermal Resource ...................................................... 129 Synopsis ...................................................... 132 References .................................................... 133 Further Information ........................................... 134 Chapter 8 Drilling ........................................... 135 Background .................................................... 135 Drilling for Ground Source Heat Pump and Direct Use Applications .................................................. 135 Drilling Equipment and Technology .......................... 136 Drilling Fluid and Circulation ............................. 137 Properties of Drilling Fluids .............................. 139 Well Completion ............................................ 140 Environmental Issues ....................................... 140 Drilling for Geothermal Fluids for Power Generation ........... 141 Drilling Rigs .............................................. 141 Confining Pressure and Rock Strength ....................... 141 Temperature and Drilling Fluid Stability ................... 143 Casing and Grouting ........................................ 145 Packers .................................................... 146 Lost Circulation ........................................... 147 Directional Drilling ....................................... 147 Case Study: Kakkonda, Japan ................................... 149 Synopsis ...................................................... 151 References .................................................... 151 Further Information ........................................... 152 Chapter 9 Generating Power Using Geothermal Resources ........ 153 The History of Geothermal Power Production .................... 153 General Features of Geothermal Power Generation Facilities .... 154 Dry Steam Resources ........................................... 155 Hydrothermal Systems .......................................... 161 Flashing ................................................... 163 Steam Quality .............................................. 165 Dual-Flash Systems ......................................... 166 The End State: Condensers and Cooling Towers ............... 167 Binary Generation Facilities: The Organic Rankine Cycle ....... 168 Case Study: The Geysers ....................................... 170 Geology .................................................... 170 Power Generation History ................................... 172 Emissions .................................................. 172 Sustainability and Reinjection ............................. 173 Synopsis ...................................................... 176 References .................................................... 177 Further Information ........................................... 178 Chapter 10 Low Temperature Geothermal Resources: Ground Source Heat Pumps .................................. 183 Basic Heat Pump Principles .................................... 183 Thermodynamics of Heat Pumps .................................. 186 Coefficient of Performance (COP) and Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER) ................................................ 187 Near-Surface Thermal Reservoir ................................ 187 Solar Insolation ........................................... 188 Soil Characteristics ....................................... 188 Thermal Conductivity and Heat Capacity of Soils ............ 190 Design Considerations for Closed-Loop Systems ................. 191 Heating and Cooling Loads .................................. 191 Calculating Loop Length .................................... 191 Case Study: Weaverville ....................................... 193 Synopsis ...................................................... 198 References .................................................... 199 Further Information ........................................... 199 Chapter 11 Direct Use of Geothermal Resources ................. 201 Assessing the Magnitude of the Direct Use Reservoir ........... 201 The Nature of Thermal Energy Transfer ......................... 203 Heat Transfer by Conduction ................................ 204 Heat Transfer by Convection ................................ 207 Heat Transfer by Radiation ................................. 208 Heat Transfer by Evaporation ............................... 209 Establishing the Feasibility of a Direct Use Application ...... 210 District Heating .............................................. 210 Evaluation and Operation ................................... 210 Managing Return Temperature ................................ 212 Piping and Heat Loss ....................................... 213 Materials Compatibility and Fluid Chemistry ................ 213 Aquaculture ................................................... 214 Drying ........................................................ 216 Case Study. Canby Cascaded System ............................. 217 Synopsis ...................................................... 222 References .................................................... 223 Further Information ........................................... 223 Chapter 12 Use of Geothermal Resources: Environmental Considerations ..................................... 225 Emissions ..................................................... 225 Carbon Dioxide ............................................. 225 Hydrogen Sulfide ........................................... 228 Mercury .................................................... 229 Solute Load and Resource Recovery ............................. 229 Seismicity ................................................. 231 Mechanics of Seismic Events ................................ 231 Shear Stress, Normal Stress, and Frictional Strength .... 231 Pore Water .............................................. 232 Seismic Activity Associated with Geothermal Projects ....... 233 Seismicity Associated with Injection of Cool Water ...... 233 Rupture Area and Magnitude .............................. 235 Seismicity Associated with Fluid Extraction ................ 236 Seismicity Associated with High-Pressure Injection of Fluid to Enhance Reservoir Permeability .................... 237 Ground Subsidence ............................................. 238 Water Use ..................................................... 241 Land Use ...................................................... 242 Synopsis ...................................................... 244 References .................................................... 245 Additional Information ........................................ 247 Chapter 13 Use of Geothermal Resources: Economic Considerations ..................................... 251 Economics of Geothermal Power ................................. 251 Capacity Factors ........................................... 251 Levelized Costs ............................................ 253 Economics of R&D Investment in Geothermal Energy .............. 255 Technology Evolution and S-Curves .......................... 255 Projected Energy Costs ..................................... 255 Developing a Geothermal Project ............................... 257 Rights to Develop a Resource and Permitting ................ 257 Initial Resource Assessments ............................... 258 Refining the Resource Assessment through Exploration Drilling ................................................... 259 Production Wells and Feasibility Study ..................... 259 Synopsis ...................................................... 260 References .................................................... 261 Chapter 14 The Geothermal Energy Future: Possibilities and Issues ............................................. 263 Geopressured Resources ........................................ 263 Magnitude of the Resource .................................. 263 Why Geopressured Reservoirs Form ........................... 263 Challenges to Development .................................. 264 Fluid Chemistry ......................................... 264 Reinjection ............................................. 266 Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS) ............................. 266 Magnitude of the Resource .................................. 266 Technological Requirements ................................. 269 EGS Efforts to Date ........................................ 270 Drilling and Downhole Equipment ............................ 271 Drilling Fluids ......................................... 271 High-Temperature Downhole Equipment ..................... 271 Reservoir Engineering ................................... 271 Reservoir Management for Sustainability ................. 272 Synopsis ...................................................... 274 References .................................................... 275 Further Information ........................................... 276 Index ......................................................... 277 Index of Locations ............................................ 289