Advanced RF MEMS (New York, 2010). - ОГЛАВЛЕНИЕ / CONTENTS
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ОбложкаAdvanced RF MEMS / ed. by S.Lucyszyn. - New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010. - xxviii, 412 p.: ill. - (The Cambridge RF and microwave engineering series). - Incl. bibl. ref. - Ind.: p.409-412. - ISBN 978-0-521-89771-6
 

Оглавление / Contents
 
   List of contributors ....................................... xiv
   Preface ................................................... xvii
   List of abbreviations ....................................... xx

1  Introduction ................................................. 1
   1.1  Introduction ............................................ 1
        1.1.1  Defining terms ................................... 1
        1.1.2  Enabling technology roadmap ...................... 2
   1.2  Fabrication technologies ................................ 4
   1.3  Electromechanical actuation ............................. 5
   1.4  Generic RF MEMS components .............................. 8
        1.4.1  Switches ......................................... 8
        1.4.2  Variable capacitors ............................. 10
        1.4.3  Antennas ........................................ 11
   1.5  Circuits and subsystems ................................ 15
   1.6  Conclusions ............................................ 18
   References .................................................. 19
2  Electromechanical modelling of electrostatic actuators ...... 23
   2.1  Introduction ........................................... 23
   2.2  Energy methods and the equilibrium/momentum equation ... 24
   2.3  Static equilibrium and stability ....................... 26
        2.3.1  Actuators with one degree of freedom ............ 26
        2.3.2  Actuators with several degrees of freedom ....... 27
        2.3.3  Distributed systems ............................. 29
        2.3.4  Numerical methods ............................... 30
   2.4  Dynamic response of electrostatic actuators ............ 32
        2.4.1  Dynamic pull-in of a one-DOF system ............. 32
        2.4.2  Dynamic pull-in of the clamped-clamped beam
               actuator ........................................ 35
        2.4.3  Switching time of electrostatic actuators ....... 37
   2.5  Conclusions ............................................ 38
   References .................................................. 38
3  Switches and their fabrication technologies ................. 41
   3.1  Introduction ........................................... 41
   3.2  Substrate materials and fabrication technologies ....... 42
   3.3  Actuation principles ................................... 43
        3.3.1  Capacitive switches with electrostatic
               actuation ....................................... 45
        3.3.2  Ohmic switches with electrostatic actuation ..... 51
        3.3.3  Switches with piezoelectric actuation ........... 55
        3.3.4  Switches with electrothermal and
               electromagnetic actuation ....................... 56
   3.4  Switch building blocks ................................. 58
        3.4.1  Metallisation ................................... 58
        3.4.2  Capacitive switch dielectrics ................... 60
        3.4.3  Ohmic switch contacts ........................... 61
        3.4.4  Sacrificial layers .............................. 63
        3.4.5  Moveable structures ............................. 65
   References .................................................. 67
4  Niche switch technologies ................................... 73
   4.1  Introduction ........................................... 73
   4.2  Latching switches ...................................... 73
        4.2.1  Magnetically actuated bistable switches ......... 74
        4.2.2  Electrothermally actuated bistable switches ..... 75
        4.2.3  Electrostatic bistable switch ................... 77
        4.2.4  Mechanically latching switches .................. 79
   4.3  Multiway switches ...................................... 83
        4.3.1  SPDT switches ................................... 84
        4.3.2  SP4T switches ................................... 88
        4.3.3  SP6T switches ................................... 88
        4.3.4  SP8T switches ................................... 88
        4.3.5  SP9T switches and SP48T modules ................. 90
        4.3.6  DPDT switches ................................... 92
        4.3.7  Switch matrices ................................. 94
   4.4  High-power switches .................................... 95
        4.4.1  Additional hold electrodes ...................... 95
        4.4.2  Beam cross section .............................. 95
        4.4.3  Switching arrays ................................ 96
        4.4.4  Contact force ................................... 97
        4.4.5  Materials ....................................... 98
        4.4.6  Non-beam architectures .......................... 98
        4.4.7  Unconventional 3D power switch ................. 100
        4.4.8  RF power measurements .......................... 102
   References ................................................. 105
5  Reliability ................................................ 109
   5.1  Introduction .......................................... 109
        5.1.1  Terminology .................................... 110
        5.1.2  Failure- and application-driven reliability
               methodology .................................... 111
   5.2  Failure mechanisms in RF MEMS ......................... 112
        5.2.1  Creep/stress relaxation ........................ 112
        5.2.2  Temperature- and stress-induced plastic
               deformation .................................... 115
        5.2.3  Temperature-induced elastic deformation ........ 117
        5.2.4  Fatigue ........................................ 119
        5.2.5  Stiction ....................................... 120
        5.2.6  Electromigration ............................... 127
        5.2.7  Self-actuation ................................. 127
        5.2.8  Fly-catching effect ............................ 130
        5.2.9  Outgassing and adsorption ...................... 130
        5.2.10 Mechanical and acoustic coupling ............... 132
   5.3  Conclusions ........................................... 132
   5.4  Acknowledgments ....................................... 132
   References ................................................. 133
6  Dielectric Charging ........................................ 140
   6.1  Introduction .......................................... 140
   6.2  Dielectric charging in MEMS ........................... 140
        6.2.1  Capacitance-voltage characteristic ............. 141
        6.2.2  Switch-ON and switch-OFF capacitance
               transients ..................................... 146
        6.2.3  Shift in pull-in and pull-out voltages ......... 151
        6.2.4  Lifetime tests, material and environmental
               effects ........................................ 159
        6.2.5  Dielectric charging in MIM capacitors .......... 163
        6.2.6  Kelvin probe force microscopy .................. 169
   6.3  Dielectric polarisation ............................... 172
        6.3.1  Dipolar polarisation ........................... 174
        6.3.2  Space-charge polarisation ...................... 176
        6.3.3  Interfacial polarisation ....................... 177
   6.4  Charge injection mechanisms ........................... 178
        6.4.1  Trap-assisted tunnelling ....................... 179
        6.4.2  Poole-Frenkel process .......................... 180
        6.4.3  Schottky injection ............................. 181
   6.5  Conclusions ........................................... 181
   References ................................................. 182
7  Stress and thermal characterisation ........................ 188
   7.1  Introduction .......................................... 188
   7.2  Theoretical background ................................ 188
        7.2.1  Stress tensor .................................. 188
        7.2.2  Strain tensor .................................. 190
        7.2.3  Thermal transfer ............................... 192
        7.2.4  Origin of stress and temperature ............... 193
   7.3  Stress and temperature effects ........................ 194
        7.3.1  Temperature dependence of resonance frequency
               in BAW resonators .............................. 194
        7.3.2  Thermoelastic deformations in tuneable
               capacitors ..................................... 196
   7.4  Stress and temperature measurement .................... 197
        7.4.1  X-ray diffraction for stress determination ..... 198
        7.4.2  Infrared thermography for temperature
               determination .................................. 200
        7.4.3  Other methods .................................. 203
   7.5  Conclusions ........................................... 203
   References ................................................. 203
8  High-power handling ........................................ 205
   8.1  Introduction .......................................... 205
   8.2  RF power handling related phenomena ................... 206
        8.2.1  Electromigration ............................... 206
        8.2.2  Self-biasing and RF latching ................... 208
        8.2.3  Electromagnetic-induced
               thermoelectromechanical effects ................ 214
   8.3  Overview of power handling RF MEMS components ......... 224
        8.3.1  Capacitive switches and varactors .............. 224
        8.3.2  Ohmic contact switches ......................... 226
   8.4  Conclusions ........................................... 227
   References ................................................. 229
9  Packaging .................................................. 232
   9.1  Introduction .......................................... 232
   9.2  Zero-level packaging .................................. 233
        9.2.1  Design considerations and performance .......... 235
        9.2.2  Technologies and materials for the zero-level
               package ........................................ 248
   9.3  Package integration ................................... 258
        9.3.1  Multiple MEMS in a single package .............. 258
        9.3.2  Integrated RF MEMS ............................. 259
   9.4 Conclusions ............................................ 264
   References ................................................. 264
10 Impedance tuners and tuneable filters ...................... 271
   10.1 Introduction .......................................... 271
   10.2 Impedance tuners ...................................... 272
        10.2.1 Stub-tuner design .............................. 272
        10.2.2 Stub-based impedance tuners and matching
               networks ....................................... 276
        10.2.3 Distributed impedance tuners and matching
               networks ....................................... 280
        10.2.4 Discussion on impedance tuners and matching
               networks ....................................... 285
   10.3 Tuneable filters ...................................... 285
        10.3.1 Tuning technologies for filters ................ 285
        10.3.2 RF MEMS-based filters .......................... 287
   10.4 Conclusions ........................................... 301
   References ................................................. 301
11 Phase shifters and tuneable delay lines .................... 307
   11.1 Introduction .......................................... 307
        11.1.1 Definition and applications .................... 307
        11.1.2 Technologies ................................... 308
        11.1.3 Specifications ................................. 309
   11.2 Reflection-type phase shifters ........................ 310
        11.2.1 Theoretical analysis ........................... 310
        11.2.2 Directional couplers ........................... 314
        11.2.3 Analogue implementations ....................... 315
        11.2.4 Digital implementations ........................ 316
        11.2.5 Phase variation and bandwidth .................. 316
        11.2.6 State of the art ............................... 317
   11.3 Phase shifters based on LC networks ................... 317
        11.3.1 Low/high-pass Networks ......................... 318
        11.3.2 All-pass networks .............................. 319
        11.3.3 State of the art ............................... 322
   11.4 Loaded-line phase shifters ............................ 323
        11.4.1 Theoretical analysis ........................... 323
        11.4.2 Practical implementation and state of the
               art ............................................ 326
   11.5 Switched delay-line phase shifters .................... 327
        11.5.1 Principle and design issues .................... 327
        11.5.2 State of the art ............................... 328
   11.6 Distributed loaded-line phase shifters ................ 329
        11.6.1 Theoretical analysis ........................... 329
        11.6.2 Practical implementation ....................... 331
        11.6.3 State of the art ............................... 333
   11.7 General issues ........................................ 333
        11.7.1 Power handling ................................. 333
        11.7.2 Noise and linearity ............................ 335
   11.8 Conclusions ........................................... 336
   References ................................................. 337
12 Reconfigurable architectures ............................... 343
   12.1 Introduction .......................................... 343
   12.2 Reconfigurable radios ................................. 344
        12.2.1 General architectures .......................... 344
        12.2.2 Handset front-ends ............................. 344
        12.2.3 Base stations .................................. 347
        12.2.4 Multiband and tracking receivers ............... 348
   12.3 Reconfigurable antennas ............................... 348
        12.3.1 Beam-steering antennas ......................... 348
        12.3.2 Handset antennas ............................... 352
   12.4 Measurement applications .............................. 353
        12.4.1 Multifunctional RFOW probes .................... 353
   12.5 Conclusions ........................................... 355
   References ................................................. 356
13 Industry roadmap for RF MEMS ............................... 359
   13.1 Introduction .......................................... 359
   13.2 Roadmap of RF MEMS components ......................... 360
        13.2.1 RF MEMS switches ............................... 360
        13.2.2 Tuneable capacitors ............................ 365
        13.2.3 Emerging RF MEMS and RF NEMS components ........ 369
   13.3 Applications roadmap .................................. 371
        13.3.1 RF MEMS for mobile and wireless systems ........ 371
        13.3.2 RF MEMS for road transport applications ........ 386
        13.3.3 RF MEMS for aeronautics ........................ 393
        13.3.4 RF MEMS for satellites ......................... 395
   13.4 Implementation of the roadmap ......................... 398
        13.4.1 Modelling and design ........................... 398
        13.4.2 Materials and processes ........................ 400
        13.4.3 Heterogeneous integration, assembly and
               packaging ...................................... 400
        13.4.4 Testing, characterisation and reliability ...... 400
   13.5 Conclusions ........................................... 401
   References ................................................. 402

   Author biographies ......................................... 404

   Index ...................................................... 409


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