Preface ........................................................ xv
Acknowledgement .............................................. xvii
Chapter 1 Introduction .......................................... 1
1.1 Acid Gas ................................................... 2
1.1.1 Hydrogen Sulfide .................................... 3
1.1.2 Carbon Dioxide ...................................... 4
1.2 Anthropogenic CO2 .......................................... 5
1.3 Flue Gas ................................................... 5
1.3.1 Sulfur Oxides ....................................... 7
1.3.2 Nitrogen Oxides ..................................... 8
1.4 Standard Volumes ........................................... 8
1.4.1 Gas Volumes ......................................... 8
1.4.2 Liquid Volumes ...................................... 9
1.5 Sulfur Equivalent .......................................... 9
1.6 Sweetening Natural Gas .................................... 11
1.6.1 Combustion Process Gas ............................. 12
1.7 Acid Gas Injection ........................................ 14
1.8 Who Uses Acid Gas Injection? .............................. 16
1.8.1 Western Canada ..................................... 16
1.8.2 United States ...................................... 17
1.8.3 Other Locations .................................... 17
1.8.4 CO2 Hooding ........................................ 18
1.9 In Summary ................................................ 18
References ................................................ 18
Appendix 1A Oxides of Nitrogen ................................. 20
Appendix 1B Oxides of Sulfur ................................... 22
Chapter 2 Hydrogen Sulfide and Carbon Dioxide ................. 23
2.1 Properties of Carbon Dioxide .............................. 25
2.2 Properties of Hydrogen Sulfide ............................ 27
2.3 Estimation Techniques for Physical Properties ............. 31
2.3.1 Thermodynamic Properties ........................... 31
2.3.2 Saturated Liquid and Vapor Densities ............... 36
2.3.3 Thermodynamic Properties ........................... 39
2.3.4 Transport Properties ............................... 40
2.3.5 Viscosity Charts ................................... 43
2.4 Properties of Acid Gas Mixtures ........................... 44
2.4.1 Thermodynamic Properties ........................... 44
2.4.2 Transport Properties ............................... 47
2.4.3 Word of Caution .................................... 48
2.5 Effect of Hydrocarbons .................................... 50
2.5.1 Density ............................................ 50
2.5.2 Viscosity .......................................... 51
2.6 In Summary ................................................ 51
References ................................................ 51
Appendix 2A Transport Properties of Pure Hydrogen
2A.1 Viscosity ................................................. 53
2A.1.1 Liquid ............................................. 53
2A.2 Thermal Conductivity ...................................... 55
References ................................................ 57
Appendix 2B Viscosity of Acid Gas Mixtures ..................... 59
2B.1.1 Correcting for High Pressure ....................... 59
2B.1.2 Carbon Dioxide ..................................... 59
2B.1.3 Generalization ..................................... 61
2B.1.4 Mixtures ........................................... 62
2B.1.5 Final Comments ..................................... 63
References ................................................ 63
Appendix 2C Equations of State ................................. 64
2C.1.1 Soave-Redlich-Kwong Equation of State .............. 64
2C.1.2 Peng-Robinson Equation of State .................... 64
2C.1.3 The Patel-Teja Equation of State ................... 65
Chapter 3 Non-Aqueous Phase Equilibrium ....................... 69
3.1 Overview .................................................. 69
3.2 Pressure-Temperature Diagrams ............................. 70
3.2.1 Pure Components .................................... 70
3.2.2 Mixtures ........................................... 73
3.2.3 Binary Critical Points ............................. 76
3.2.4 Effect of Hydrocarbons ............................. 77
3.3 Calculation of Phase Equilibrium .......................... 82
3.3.1 Equations of State ................................. 82
3.3.2 K-Factor Charts .................................... 83
3.4 In Summary ................................................ 85
References ................................................ 85
Appendix 3А Some Additional Phase Equilibrium Calculations ..... 86
3A.1.1 Hydrogen Sulfide + Hydrocarbons .................... 86
3А.1.2 Carbon Dioxide + Hydrocarbons ...................... 87
3А.1.3 Multicomponent Mixtures ............................ 88
References ................................................ 92
Appendix 3B Accuracy of Equations of State for VLE in Acid
Gas Mixtures ....................................... 96
References ................................................ 98
Chapter 4 Fluid Phase Equilibria Involving Water .............. 99
4.1 Water Content of Hydrocarbon Gas ......................... 100
4.2 Water Content of Acid Gas ................................ 101
4.2.1 Carbon Dioxide .................................... 102
4.2.2 Hydrogen Sulfide .................................. 103
4.2.3 Practical Representation .......................... 106
4.3 Estimation Techniques .................................... 108
4.3.1 Simple Methods .................................... 109
4.3.2 Advanced Methods .................................. 111
4.4 Acid Gas Solubility ...................................... 113
4.4.1 Henry's Law ....................................... 113
4.4.2 Solubility in Brine ............................... 115
4.5 In Summary ............................................... 119
References ............................................... 120
Appendix 4A Compilation of the Experimental Data for the
Water Content of Acid Gas ......................... 122
References ............................................... 124
Appendix 4B Comments on the Work of Selleck et al. ............ 127
Appendix 4C Density of Brine (NaCl) Solutions ................. 129
Chapter 5 Hydrates ........................................... 131
5.1 Introduction to Hydrates ................................. 131
5.2 Hydrates of Acid Gases ................................... 132
5.3 Estimation of Hydrate Forming Conditions ................. 135
5.3.1 Shortcut Methods .................................. 135
5.3.2 Rigorous Methods .................................. 136
5.4 Mitigation of Hydrate Formation .......................... 136
5.4.1 Inhibition with Methanol .......................... 136
5.4.2 Water-Reduced Cases ............................... 138
5.4.3 Application of Heat ............................... 142
5.5 Excess Water ............................................. 142
5.6 Hydrates and AGI ......................................... 143
5.7 In Summary ............................................... 143
References ............................................... 143
Chapter 6 Compression ........................................ 145
6.1 Overview ................................................. 145
6.2 Theoretical Considerations ............................... 148
6.3 Compressor Design and Operation .......................... 148
6.4 Design Calculations ...................................... 149
6.4.1 Compression Ratio ................................. 150
6.4.2 Ideal Gas ......................................... 151
6.4.3 Efficiency ........................................ 157
6.4.4 Ratio of the Heat Capacities ...................... 158
6.5 Interstage Coolers ....................................... 159
6.5.1 Design ............................................ 160
6.5.2 Pressure Drop ..................................... 164
6.5.3 Phase Equilibrium ................................. 164
6.6 Compression and Water Knockout ........................... 167
6.6.1 Additional Cooling ................................ 171
6.7 Materials of construction ................................ 172
6.8 Advanced design .......................................... 172
6.8.1 Cascade ........................................... 172
6.8.2 CO2 Slip .......................................... 173
6.9 Case studies ............................................. 174
6.9.1 Wayne-Rosedale .................................... 174
6.9.2 Acheson ........................................... 175
6.9.3 West Pembina ...................................... 175
6.10 In Summary ............................................... 175
References ............................................... 176
Appendix 6A Additional Calculations ........................... 177
Chapter 7 Dehydration of Acid Gas ............................ 183
7.1 Glycol Dehydration ....................................... 184
7.1.1 Acid Gas Solubility ............................... 185
7.1.2 Desiccant ......................................... 187
7.2 Molecular Sieves ......................................... 189
7.2.1 Acid Gas Adsorption ............................... 191
7.3 Refrigeration ............................................ 192
7.3.1 Selection of Inhibitor ............................ 193
7.4 Case Studies ............................................. 194
7.4.1 CO2 Dehydration ................................... 194
7.4.2 Acid Gas Dehydration .............................. 195
7.5 In Summary ............................................... 196
References ............................................... 196
Chapter 8 Pipeline ........................................... 199
8.1 Pressure Drop ............................................ 199
8.1.1 Single Phase Flow ................................. 199
8.1.2 Two-Phase Flow .................................... 205
8.1.3 Transitional Flow ................................. 205
8.2 Temperature Loss ......................................... 206
8.2.1 Carroll's Method .................................. 206
8.3 Guidelines ............................................... 207
8.4 Metering ................................................. 208
8.5 Other Considerations ..................................... 209
8.6 In Summary ............................................... 210
References ............................................... 210
Appendix 8A Sample Pipeline Temperature Loss Calculation ..... 211
8A.1 AQUAlibrium 3.0 .......................................... 212
8A.1.1 Acid Gas Properties .............................. 212
Chapter 9 Injection Profiles ................................. 215
9.1 Calculation of Injection Profiles ........................ 215
9.1.1 Gases ............................................. 216
9.1.2 Liquids ........................................... 220
9.1.3 Supercritical Fluids .............................. 221
9.1.4 Friction .......................................... 221
9.1.5 AGIProfile ........................................ 221
9.2 Effect of Hydrocarbons ................................... 224
9.3 Case Studies ............................................. 228
9.3.1 Chevron Injection Wells ........................... 228
9.3.2 Anderson Puskwaskau ............................... 232
9.4 Other Software ........................................... 232
9.5 In Summary ............................................... 232
References ............................................... 232
Appendix 9A Additional Examples ............................... 234
Chapter 10 Selection of Disposal Zone ......................... 239
10.1 Containment .............................................. 239
10.1.1 Reservoir Capacity ................................ 240
10.1.2 Caprock ........................................... 240
10.1.3 Other Wells ....................................... 241
10.2 Injectivity .............................................. 241
10.2.1 Liquid Phase ...................................... 241
10.2.2 Gas Injection ..................................... 244
10.2.3 Fracturing ........................................ 245
10.2.4 Horizontal Wells .................................. 245
10.3 Interactions With Acid Gas ............................... 245
10.4 In Summary ............................................... 246
References ............................................... 246
Chapter 11 Health, Safety and The Environment ................. 247
11.1 Hydrogen Sulfide ......................................... 247
11.1.1 Physiological Properties .......................... 248
11.1.2 Regulations ....................................... 248
11.1.3 Other Considerations .............................. 249
11.2 Carbon Dioxide ........................................... 249
11.2.1 Physiological Properties .......................... 249
11.2.2 Climate Change .................................... 250
11.2.3 Other Considerations .............................. 250
11.3 Emergency Planning ....................................... 250
11.3.1 Accidental Releases ............................... 250
11.3.2 Planning Zones .................................... 251
11.3.3 Other Considerations .............................. 255
References ............................................... 256
Chapter 12 Capital Costs ...................................... 257
12.1 Compression .............................................. 257
12.1.1 Reciprocating Compressor .......................... 258
12.1.2 Centrifugal ....................................... 259
12.2 Pipeline ................................................. 259
12.3 Wells .................................................... 260
12.4 In Summary ............................................... 261
References ............................................... 261
Chapter 13 Additional Topics .................................. 263
13.1 Rules of Thumb ........................................... 263
13.1.1 Physical Properties ............................... 263
13.1.2 Water Content ..................................... 264
13.1.3 Hydrates .......................................... 264
13.1.4 Compression ....................................... 264
13.1.5 Pipelines ......................................... 265
13.1.6 Reservoir ......................................... 266
13.2 Graphical Summary ........................................ 266
13.2.1 Pressure-Temperature .............................. 266
13.2.2 Water Content ..................................... 268
13.2.3 Operation ......................................... 269
13.2.4 Summary ........................................... 270
13.3 The Three Types of Gas ................................... 270
13.3.1 Example Gases ..................................... 270
Index ......................................................... 275
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