Preface to the Second Edition .................................. xi
Acknowledgments ................................................ xv
Preface to the First Edition ................................. xvii
1 Geographic Information Analysis and Spatial Data ............. 1
Chapter Objectives ...................................... 1
1.1 Introduction ............................................ 2
1.2 Spatial Data Types ...................................... 5
1.3 Some Complications ..................................... 10
1.4 Scales for Attribute Description ....................... 18
1.5 GIS and Spatial Data Manipulation ...................... 24
1.6 The Road Ahead ......................................... 28
Chapter Review ......................................... 29
References ............................................. 29
2 The Pitfalls and Potential of Spatial Data .................. 33
Chapter Objectives ..................................... 33
2.1 Introduction ........................................... 33
2.2 The Bad News: The Pitfalls of Spatial Data ............. 34
2.3 The Good News: The Potential of Spatial Data ........... 41
Chapter Review ......................................... 52
References ............................................. 53
3 Fundamentals—Mapping It Out ................................. 55
Chapter Objectives ..................................... 55
3.1 Introduction: The Cartographic Tradition ............... 56
3.2 Geovisualization and Analysis .......................... 58
3.3 The Graphic Variables of Jacques Bertin ................ 60
3.4 New Graphic Variables .................................. 63
3.5 Issues in Geovisualization ............................. 65
3.6 Mapping and Exploring Points ........................... 66
3.7 Mapping and Exploring Areas ............................ 72
3.8 Mapping and Exploring Fields ........................... 80
3.9 TheSpatializationofNonspatialData ...................... 84
3.10 Conclusion ............................................. 86
Chapter Review ......................................... 87
References ............................................. 87
4 Fundamentals—Maps as Outcomes of Processes .................. 93
Chapter Objectives ..................................... 93
4.1 Introduction: Maps and Processes ....................... 94
4.2 Processes and the Patterns They Make ................... 95
4.3 Predicting the Pattern Generated by a Process ......... 100
4.4 More Definitions ...................................... 106
4.5 Stochastic Processes in Lines, Areas, and Fields ...... 108
4.6 Conclusions ........................................... 116
Chapter Review ........................................ 117
References ............................................ 118
5 Point Pattern Analysis ..................................... 121
Chapter Objectives .................................... 121
5.1 Introduction .......................................... 121
5.2 Describing a Point Pattern ............................ 123
5.3 Assessing Point Patterns Statistically ................ 139
5.4 Monte Carlo Testing ................................... 148
5.5 Conclusions ........................................... 152
Chapter Review ........................................ 154
References ............................................ 154
6 Practical Point Pattern Analysis ........................... 157
Chapter Objectives .................................... 157
6.1 Introduction: Problems of Spatial Statistical
Analysis .............................................. 158
6.2 Alternatives to Classical Statistical Inference ....... 161
6.3 Alternatives to IRP/CSR ............................... 162
6.4 Point Pattern Analysis in the Real World .............. 166
6.5 Dealing with Inhomogeneity ............................ 168
6.6 Focused Approaches .................................... 172
6.7 Cluster Detection: Scan Statistics .................... 173
6.8 Using Density and Distance: Proximity Polygons ........ 177
6.9 A Note on Distance Matrices and Point Pattern
Analysis .............................................. 180
Chapter Review ........................................ 182
References ............................................ 183
7 Area Objects and Spatial Autocorrelation ................... 187
Chapter Objectives .................................... 187
7.1 Introduction: Area Objects Revisited .................. 188
7.2 Types of Area Objects ................................. 188
7.3 Geometrie Properties of Areas ......................... 191
7.4 Measuring Spatial Autocorrelation ..................... 199
7.5 An Example: Tuberculosis in Auckland, 2001-2006 ....... 206
7.6 Other Approaches ...................................... 210
Chapter Review ........................................ 212
References ............................................ 213
8 Local Statistics ........................................... 215
Chapter Objectives .................................... 215
8.1 Introduction: Think Geographically, Measure Locally ... 216
8.2 Defining the Local: Spatial Structure (Again) ......... 218
8.3 An Example: The Getis-Ord Gi and Gi*-Statistics ........ 219
8.4 Inference with Local Statistics ....................... 223
8.5 Other Local Statistics ................................ 226
8.6 Conclusions: Seeing the World Locally ................. 234
Chapter Review ........................................ 235
References ............................................ 236
9 Describing and Analyzing Fields ............................ 239
Chapter Objectives .................................... 239
9.1 Introduction: Scalar and Vector Fields Revisited ...... 240
9.2 Modeling and Storing Field Data ....................... 243
9.3 Spatial Interpolation ................................. 250
9.4 Derived Measures on Surfaces .......................... 263
9.5 Map Algebra ........................................... 270
9.6 Conclusions ........................................... 273
Chapter Review ........................................ 274
References ............................................ 275
10 Knowing the Unknowable: The Statistics of Fields ........... 277
Chapter Objectives .................................... 277
10.1 Introduction .......................................... 278
10.2 Regression on Spatial Coordinates: Trend Surface
Analysis .............................................. 279
10.3 The Square Root Differences Cloud and the (Semi-)
Variogram ............................................. 287
10.4 A Statistical Approach to Interpolation: Kriging ...... 293
10.5 Conclusions ........................................... 311
Chapter Review ........................................ 312
References ............................................ 313
11 Putting Maps Together—Map Overlay .......................... 315
Chapter Objectives .................................... 315
11.1 Introduction .......................................... 316
11.2 Boolean Map Overlay and Sieve Mapping ................. 319
11.3 A General Model for Alternatives to Boolean Overlay ... 326
11.4 Indexed Overlay and Weighted Linear Combination ....... 328
11.5 Weights of Evidence ................................... 331
11.6 Model-Driven Overlay Using Regression ................. 334
11.7 Conclusions ........................................... 336
Chapter Review ........................................ 337
References ............................................ 337
12 New Approaches to Spatial Analysis ......................... 341
Chapter Objectives .................................... 341
12.1 The Changing Technological Environment ................ 342
12.2 The Changing Scientific Environment ................... 345
12.3 Geocomputation ........................................ 346
12.4 Spatial Models ........................................ 355
12.5 The Grid and the Cloud: Supercomputing for Dummies .... 363
12.6 Conclusions: Neogeographic Information Analysis? ...... 365
Chapter Review ........................................ 367
References ............................................ 368
Appendix A: Notation, Matrices, and Matrix Mathematics ........ 373
A.1 Introduction .......................................... 373
A.2 Some Preliminary Notes on Notation .................... 373
A.3 Matrix Basics and Notation ............................ 376
A.4 Simple Matrix Mathematics ............................. 379
A.5 Solving Simultaneous Equations Using Matrices ......... 384
A.6 Matrices, Vectors, and Geometry ....................... 389
A.7 Eigenvectors and Eigenvalues .......................... 391
Reference .................................................. 393
Index ......................................................... 395
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