Chapter 1 Nonaqueous Batteries Used in Industrial Applications
G. Pistoia
1.1 Introduction .............................................. 1
1.2 Primary Lithium Batteries ................................. 1
1.2.1 Lithium/Sulrur Dioxide Batteries .................. 2
1.2.2 Lithium/Thionyl Chloride Batteries ................ 5
1.2.3 Lithium/Manganese Dioxide Batteries .............. 10
1.2.4 Lithium/Carbon Monofluoride Batteries ............ 14
1.2.5 Basic Parameters of Primary Li Batteries ......... 17
1.3 Rechargeable Batteries ................................... 17
1.3.1 Lithium-Ion Batteries ............................ 17
1.3.2 Batteries with a Lithium Electrode ............... 32
1.3.3 Batteries with a Sodium Electrode ................ 41
1.3.4 Basic Parameters of Secondary Nonaqueous
Batteries ........................................ 49
Chapter 2 Aqueous Batteries Used in Industrial Applications
G. Pistoia
2.1 Introduction ............................................. 53
2.2 Lead/Acid Batteries ...................................... 53
2.2.1 Electrodes ....................................... 53
2.2.2 Grids ............................................ 55
2.2.3 Plate Designs .................................... 55
2.2.4 Electrolyte and Separators ....................... 57
2.2.5 Charge/Discharge Reactions ....................... 57
2.2.6 Design Features and Applications ................. 59
2.2.7 Discharge Characteristics, Peukert Equation and
Self-Discharge ................................... 63
2.2.8 Charging Methods ................................. 65
2.3 Nickel/Cadmium Batteries ................................. 66
2.3.1 Introduction ..................................... 66
2.3.2 Types of Ni/Cd Batteries ......................... 66
2.3.3 Charge/Discharge Reactions ....................... 69
2.3.4 Discharge Characteristics, Memory Effect and
Self-Discharge ................................... 71
2.3.5 Charging Techniques .............................. 73
2.3.6 Cycle Life ....................................... 74
2.3.7 Applications ..................................... 76
2.4 Nickel/Metal Hydride Batteries ........................... 77
2.4.1 Materials and Electrode Reactions ................ 77
2.4.2 Cell Construction and Performance ................ 80
2.4.3 Charging the Ni/MH Battery........................ 83
2.4.4 Cycle and Battery Life ........................... 86
2.4.5 Applications ..................................... 86
2.5 Nickel/Hydrogen Batteries ................................ 89
2.6 Nickel/Iron Batteries .................................... 91
2.7 Nickel/Zinc Batteries .................................... 94
2.8 Zinc/Air Batteries ....................................... 97
2.9 Silver/Zinc Batteries ................................... 101
2.10 Zinc/Bromine Batteries .................................. 103
2.11 Vanadium Redox-Flow Batteries ........................... 106
2.12 Alkaline Primary Batteries .............................. 108
2.12.1 Electrode Materials and Processes ............... 109
2.12.2 Cell Construction ............................... 110
2.12.3 Cell Performance and Applications ............... 111
2.13 Basic Parameters of Aqueous Secondary Batteries ......... 114
Chapter 3 Characterization of Batteries by Electrochemical
and Non-Electrochemical Techniques
D. Aurbach
3.1 Introduction ............................................ 119
3.2 Categories of Battery Materials ......................... 120
3.2.1 Electrode Materials ............................. 120
3.2.2 Electrolyte Systems ............................. 126
3.2.3 Supporting Elements ............................. 127
3.3 Stages and Levels in Battery Characterization ........... 129
3.3.1 Introduction .................................... 129
3.3.2 Non-Destructive Studies of Full Cells ........... 129
3.3.3 Post-Mortem Analysis of Full Cells .............. 129
3.3.4 Half Cell Testing ............................... 130
3.3.5 Solution Studies ................................ 130
3.3.6 Electrode Studies - Bulk ........................ 131
3.4 A Brief Summary of Available Techniques Related to the
Characterization of Batteries ........................... 132
3.4.1 Glove Box Operations ............................ 132
3.4.2 Bulk Analytical Tools ........................... 133
3.4.3 Microscopy ...................................... 142
3.4.4 Analysis of Surface Area by Gas Adsorption
Processes ....................................... 146
3.4.5 Thermal Analysis ................................ 147
3.4.6 Surface Analysis ................................ 149
3.4.7 Electrochemical Techniques ...................... 155
3.4.8 Some Miscellaneous Techniques ................... 160
3.4.9 In Situ Measurements ............................ 162
3.5 Typical Studies of Electrolyte Solutions and Solid
Electrolytes ............................................ 167
3.5.1 Evaluation of Solvents Parameters and
Solutions Conductivity .......................... 167
3.5.2 Electrochemical Windows of Electrolyte
Solutions ....................................... 169
3.5.3 Thermal Studies ................................. 171
3.6 Typical Studies of Electrodes and Electrode Materials ... 173
3.6.1 The Scheme of Material Research ................. 173
3.6.2 On the Electrochemical Characterization of
Battery Electrodes .............................. 175
3.6.3 On the Surface Characterization of Battery
Electrodes ...................................... 184
3.7 Measurements of Complicated Batteries ................... 186
3.7.1 Introduction - General Aspects .................. 186
3.7.2 Examples of Standard Electrochemical
Performance Tests for Commercial and Prototype
Batteries ....................................... 187
3.7.3 Measurements of Prototype Batteries, Impedance
Measurements and the Study of Failure
Mechanisms ...................................... 189
3.7.4 Safety Features and Safety Tests ................ 192
3.8 Theoretical Aspects of Battery Characterization ......... 192
3.9 Concluding Remarks ...................................... 193
Chapter 4 Traction Batteries. EV and HEV
M. Broussely
4.1 Introduction ............................................ 203
4.2 The Different Types of Electric Vehicles ................ 204
1.2.1 Electric Vehicles (EV) .......................... 204
4.2.2 Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEV) .................. 208
4.3 Battery Technology for Traction ......................... 214
4.3.1 Lead Acid ....................................... 215
4.3.2 Nickel Cadmium .................................. 221
4.3.3 Nickel Metal Hydride ............................ 228
4.3.4 Lithium Ion ..................................... 242
4.3.5 Lithium Polymer Batteries ....................... 262
4.3.6 Sodium Nickel Chloride Battery .................. 265
4.4 Conclusion .............................................. 268
Chapter 5 Aerospace Applications. I. Satellites, Launchers,
Aircraft
К. Borthomieu and N. Thomas
5.1 Introduction ............................................ 273
5.2 Satellite Batteries ..................................... 273
5.2.1 Satellite Requirements .......................... 274
5.2.2 Satellite Battery Technologies .................. 280
5.3 Launcher Batteries ...................................... 308
5.3.1 Rechargeable Batteries .......................... 309
5.3.2 Primary Batteries ............................... 311
5.3.3 Thermal Batteries ............................... 314
5.4 Aircraft Batteries ...................................... 314
5.4.1 Batteries on Board Aircraft ..................... 314
5.4.2 Role of the Main Aircraft Battery ............... 314
5.4.3 Defining the Aircraft Environment ............... 315
5.4.4 Current Technology .............................. 317
5.4.5 Future Trends ................................... 323
Chapter 6 Aerospace Applications. II. Planetary Exploration
Missions (Orbiters, Landers, Rovers and Probes)
В.V. Ratnakumar and M.C. Smart
6.1 Introduction ............................................ 327
6.2 General Characteristics of Space Batteries .............. 328
6.3 Planetary and Space Exploration Missions ................ 329
6.3.1 Robotic Space Exploration ....................... 330
6.3.2 Human Exploration Missions ...................... 336
6.4 Past and Current Planetary Missions ..................... 339
6.4.1 Lunar Missions (Apollo) ......................... 339
6.4.2 Missions to Mars and Other Planets .............. 339
6.4.3 Other Missions .................................. 354
6.5 Future Mars Missions .................................... 356
6.6 Aerospace Battery Technologies .......................... 357
6.6.1 Primary Batteries ............................... 357
6.6.2 Thermal Batteries ............................... 363
6.6.3 Rechargeable Batteries .......................... 365
6.7 Unique Performance Attributes of Aerospace Li-Ion
Batteries ............................................... 380
6.7.1 Low Temperature Performance of Li-Ion
Batteries ....................................... 381
6.7.2 Radiation Tolerance ............................. 382
6.7.3 Calendar Life ................................... 384
6.8 Lithium Batteries - Advanced Systems .................... 384
6.9 Concluding Remarks on Rechargeable Batteries ............ 387
Chapter 7 Stationary Applications. I. Lead-Acid Batteries
for Telecommunications and UPS
R. Wagner
7.1 Introduction ............................................ 395
7.2 The Lead-Acid Battery Technology ........................ 396
7.3 Large Batteries ......................................... 402
7.4 Improvement of Power Performance ........................ 409
7.5 Features of VRLA Technology ............................. 417
7.6 Gel Batteries ........................................... 430
7.7 AGM Batteries ........................................... 435
7.8 Future Trends ........................................... 442
7.9 Conclusions ............................................. 451
Chapter 8 Stationary Applications. II. Load Levelling
J. Kondoh
8.1 Signification of Stationary Application ................. 455
8.1.1 Electric Power Systems .......................... 455
8.1.2 Load Curves and Allocation for Power Plants ..... 456
8.1.3 Load Levelling .................................. 457
8.1.4 Load Frequency Control .......................... 458
8.1.5 Other Applications .............................. 458
8.1.6 Present Conditions .............................. 458
8.1.7 Future Prospects ................................ 459
8.2 Sodium-Sulfur Battery Systems ........................... 460
8.2.1 Battery Chemistry and Components ................ 460
8.2.2 Practical System ................................ 462
8.2.3 Capital Cost .................................... 468
8.3 Vanadium Redox Flow Battery Systems ..................... 468
8.3.1 Battery Chemistry and Components ................ 468
8.3.2 Practical System ................................ 470
8.4 Other Secondary Battery Systems ......................... 475
8.4.1 Lead-Acid Battery Systems ....................... 475
8.4.2 Nickel-Metal Hydride Battery Systems ............ 475
8.4.3 Lithium-Ion Battery Systems ..................... 477
8.5 Other Electric Energy Storage Systems ................... 478
8.5.1 Pumped Hydroelectric Energy Storage Systems ..... 479
8.5.2 Compressed Air Energy Storage Systems ........... 479
8.5.3 Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage
Systems ......................................... 482
8.5.4 Electric Double Layer Capacitors ................ 484
8.5.5 Flywheel Energy Storage System .................. 485
8.6 Comparison .............................................. 486
8.6.1 Existing Systems ................................ 486
8.6.2 Lifetime and Capital Cost ....................... 486
8.6.3 Output Power and Stored Energy Densities ........ 489
8.6.4 Cycle Efficiency ................................ 492
Chapter 9 Stationary Applications. III. Lead-Acid Batteries
for Solar and Wind Energy Storage
R. Wagner
9.1 Introduction ............................................ 497
9.2 Energy Storage for Solar and Wind Systems ............... 498
9.3 Flooded Batteries ....................................... 502
9.4 Large Batteries ......................................... 505
9.5 Small Systems with VRLA Batteries ....................... 512
9.6 Large Systems with Gel Batteries ........................ 524
9.7 Further Developments .................................... 537
9.8 Conclusions ............................................. 543
Chapter 10 Stationary Applications. IV. The Role of Nickel-
Cadmium Batteries.
A. Green
10.1 Introduction ............................................ 547
10.2 History ................................................. 547
10.3 Chemistry ............................................... 548
10.3.1 Memory Effect ................................... 549
10.4 Construction Features of Nickel-Cadmium Cells .......... 550
10.4.1 Plate Technology ................................ 550
10.4.2 Active Materials ................................ 551
10.4.3 Separators ...................................... 552
10.4.4 Electrolyte ..................................... 552
10.4.5 Range of Products Available ..................... 552
10.5 Electrical and Mechanical Characteristics ............... 552
10.5.1 Performance at High and Low Temperatures ........ 553
10.5.2 Lifetime at High Temperatures ................... 554
10.5.3 Cycling Behaviour ............................... 554
10.5.4 Charge Characteristics .......................... 555
10.6 Cost and Reliability Considerations ..................... 556
10.7 A Large Battery in an Energy Storage Application ........ 558
10.7.1 Introduction .................................... 558
10.7.2 Defining the BESS ............................... 558
10.7.3 The BESS Design ................................. 559
10.7.4 Operating Results ............................... 561
10.7.5 Awards .......................................... 561
10.7.6 Final Considerations ............................ 562
10.8 Small Batteries in Telecommunication Applications ....... 562
10.9 Lifetime and Reliability: The Case of an Old Battery .... 564
10.10 Nickel-Cadmium Applications Summary ..................... 566
Chapter 11 Miscellaneous Applications. I. Metering, Power
Tools, Alarm/Security, Medical Equipments, etc.
M. Grimm
11.1 The Power Sources ....................................... 573
11.1.1 The Different Electrochemical Systems ........... 573
11.1.2 How to Select the Right Power Source? ........... 577
11.2 Metering Systems ........................................ 578
11.2.1 Heat Meters and HCA (Heat Cost Allocators) ...... 580
11.2.2 Power (Electricity) Meters ...................... 581
11.2.3 Gas Meters ...................................... 582
11.2.4 Water Meters .................................... 583
11.2.5 Data Loggers with RF Transmission ............... 583
11.2.6 Data Loggers with GSM or GPRS Transmission ...... 584
11.2.7 AMR (Automatic Meter Readers) ................... 585
11.2.8 Others .......................................... 586
11.3 Remote Mobile Monitoring ................................ 587
11.3.1 ID Tags ......................................... 587
11.3.2 Bar Code Portable Readers ....................... 589
11.3.3 GPS (Global Positioning Systems) ................ 590
11.3.4 GSM (Global System for Mobile Phones) Modules ... 591
11.4 Automatic Assistance Systems ............................ 592
11.4.1 SARSAT/COSPAS Beacons ........................... 592
11.4.2 Safety Lights ................................... 594
11.5 Alarm and Security Systems .............................. 594
11.5.1 Emergency Light Units (ELUs) .................... 595
11.5.2 Wireless Alarm Sensors .......................... 596
11.5.3 Wireless Alarm Central Units .................... 597
11.5.4 Alarm Sirens .................................... 597
11.5.5 ZigBee .......................................... 598
11.5.6 Access Control Systems .......................... 599
11.5.7 Remote Level Control Systems .................... 600
11.5.8 Telematics Systems .............................. 601
11.5.9 Power Line Surveillance ......................... 601
11.5.10 PIGs ............................................ 601
11.6 Memory Back Up (MBU) - Real Time Clocks (RTC) ........... 602
11.7 Professional Cordless Tools ............................. 603
11.7.1 Drills .......................................... 604
11.7.2 Drills and Screw Drivers-Wrenches ............... 605
11.7.3 Screw Drivers ................................... 605
11.7.1 Grinders and Sanders ............................ 605
11.7.5 Planers ......................................... 606
11.7.6 Saws (Circular, Jig, Sabre, Diamond, etc.) ...... 606
11.7.7 Mini Tools ...................................... 606
11.7.8 Irrigation Systems .............................. 607
11.7.9 Hedge Trimmers, Chain Saws, Pruning Shears ...... 607
11.8 Professional Appliances ................................. 608
11.8.1 Handheld Terminals .............................. 608
11.8.2 Professional A/V (Audio/Video) Equipments ....... 609
11.9 Ambulatory Medical Equipments ........................... 610
11.9.1 Portable Defibrillator Systems .................. 610
11.9.2 Inter-Cardial Pump Systems ...................... 611
11.9.3 Ventricular Assist Pump Systems ................. 612
11.9.4 Emergency Portable Medical Fluid Warmers ........ 612
11.9.5 Powered Respirators ............................. 613
11.9.6 Special Medical Tools ........................... 614
11.10 Conclusion .............................................. 614
Chapter 12 Miscellaneous Applications. II. Tracking Systems,
Toll Collection, Oil Drilling, Car Accessories, Oceanography
H. Yamin, M. Shlepakov and C. Menachem
12.1 Introduction ............................................ 617
12.2 Tyre Pressure Monitoring System (TPMS) ...................617
12.2.1 Direct, Indirect and Battery-Less TPMS .......... 618
12.2.2 Power Consumption ............................... 619
12.2.3 Power Sources for TPMS .......................... 619
12.3 Electronic Toll Collection .............................. 620
12.3.1 Toll Collection Systems ......................... 621
12.3.2 Power Sources ................................... 621
12.4 Automatic Crash Notification (ACN) ...................... 622
12.4.1. Electrical Requirements and Power Sources ....... 623
12.5 Tracking ................................................ 624
12.5.1 Tracking Methods ................................ 624
12.5.2 GPS Transmitters ................................ 626
12.5.3 Power Sources ................................... 628
12.5.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Available
Batteries ....................................... 631
12.6 Oil Drilling ............................................ 632
12.6.1 Applications .................................... 633
12.6.2 Power Requirements .............................. 634
12.6.3 Criteria of Battery Choice ...................... 636
12.6.4 Battery Chemistry ............................... 638
12.6.5. Future Developments ............................. 640
12.7 Oceanography ............................................ 641
12.7.1 Applications .................................... 642
12.7.2 Power Requirements .............................. 642
12.7.3 Criteria of Battery Choice ...................... 643
Chapter 13 Battery Management and Life Prediction
B.Y. Liaw and D.D. Friel
13.1 Definitions ............................................. 649
13.1.1 Battery Management .............................. 649
13.1.2 Battery Life Prediction ......................... 650
13.2 Monitoring & Measuring .................................. 652
13.2.1 Cell Monitoring ................................. 652
13.2.2 Cell Measurement ................................ 655
13.2.3 Battery Monitoring .............................. 656
13.2.4 Battery Measurement ............................. 657
13.3 Battery Management Functions ............................ 657
13.3.1 Charge Management ............................... 658
13.3.2 Discharge Management ............................ 663
13.3.3 Safety Management ............................... 670
13.3.4 "Smart Battery System" - A Specific Battery
Management Example .............................. 671
13.4 Life Prediction ......................................... 673
13.4.1 Performance Prediction: Stage One
Developments .................................... 675
13.4.2 Life Prediction with Laboratory Evaluations:
Stage Two Development ........................... 679
13.4.3 Life Prediction in Practical Use: Stage Three
Developments .................................... 683
13.4.4 Future Directions ............................... 686
Chapter 14 Battery Collection and Recycling
D. Cheret
14.1 Introduction ............................................ 691
14.2 Eco-efficiency Study on Recycling Techniques ............ 692
14.3 Trans-Boundary Movement of Batteries within the OECD
Member States ........................................... 696
14.4 Battery Collection Schemes .............................. 699
14.4.1 The Particular European Situation ............... 699
14.4.2 Financing the Schemes ........................... 700
14.4.3 A Closed Loop Concept to Reduce the Exposure
to Metal Price Fluctuation ...................... 703
14.5 The Particular Example of a Battery Producer: SAFT ...... 704
14.6 Recycling Rate: What Does It Mean? ...................... 705
14.7 Battery Recycling: The Existing Technologies ............ 707
14.7.1 The Recycling of Mixed Batteries ................ 709
14.7.2 The Recycling of Batteries Containing Mercury ... 711
14.7.3 The Recycling of Zinc-Carbon and Alkaline-
Manganese Primary Batteries ..................... 714
14.7.4 The Recycling of Lithium Primary Batteries ...... 718
14.7.5 The Recycling of Lead-Acid Batteries ............ 719
14.7.6 The Recycling of NiCd Batteries ................. 722
14.7.7 The Recycling of NiMH Batteries ................. 727
14.7.8 The Recycling of Li-ion and Li-Polymer
Batteries ....................................... 730
14.8 Conclusion .............................................. 736
Chapter 15 World Market for Industrial Batteries
D. Saxman
15.1 Scope & Analysis Assumption ............................. 737
15.1.1 Definition of Industrial Battery ................ 737
15.1.2 Definitions of Industrial Battery Market
Sectors ......................................... 738
15.1.3 Other Analysis Assumptions ...................... 740
15.2 Driving Forces Used to Predict World Market Value ....... 740
15.3 Industrial Energy Storage Systems ....................... 742
15.3.1 Battery Characteristics by Type ................. 743
15.3.2 Competing Fuel Cell Systems ..................... 746
15.3.3 Competing Exotic Energy Storage Systems ......... 748
15.4 Industrial Battery Configurations ....................... 748
15.4.1 Lifecycle Configurations ........................ 749
15.4.2 Technical Configurations ........................ 749
15.5 Driving Forces by Market Sector ......................... 750
15.5.1 Computing Batteries ............................. 750
15.5.2 Communications Batteries ........................ 751
15.5.3 Portable Tools Batteries ........................ 753
15.5.4 Other Portable Product Batteries ................ 754
15.5.5 Medical Batteries ............................... 755
15.5.6 Computer Memory Batteries ....................... 756
15.5.7 UPS/Stationary Batteries ........................ 756
15.5.8 Military/Aerospace Batteries .................... 757
15.5.9 Industrial EV Batteries ......................... 759
15.5.10 HEV/EV Batteries ................................ 760
15.5.11 Auto SLI Batteries .............................. 761
15.6 Historic and Predicted World Market Summary for
Industrial Batteries .................................... 762
Subject Index ................................................. 767
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