Prologue ..................................................... xiii
CHAPTER 1 Introduction
References ................................................. 8
CHAPTER 2 Materials Classification
2.1 General ................................................... 11
2.2 Medical/Dental Titanium and its Alloys .................... 13
2.2.1 Commercially Pure Titanium (CpTi) .................. 13
2.2.2 Ti-6Al-4V .......................................... 16
2.2.3 Ti-6Al-7Nb ......................................... 16
2.2.4 Ti-3Al-2.5V ........................................ 16
2.2.5 Ti-5Al-3Mo-4Zr ..................................... 16
2.2.6 Ti-5Al-2.5Fe ....................................... 17
2.2.7 Ti-Ni .............................................. 17
2.2.8 Ti-Cu .............................................. 18
2.2.9 Ti-Mo .............................................. 18
2.2.10 Ti-5Al-2Mo-2Fe (SP700) ............................. 18
2.2.11 Other Ti-Based Alloys .............................. 19
2.2.12 Intermetallic Alloys ............................... 19
References ................................................ 20
CHAPTER 3 Chemical and Electrochemical Reactions
3.1 Discoloration ............................................. 26
3.2 Corrosion in Media Containing Fluorine Ion Bleaching
Agents .................................................... 28
3.3 Corrosion Resistance, Effects of Environmental and
Mechanical-Assisted Actions ............................... 31
3.4 Metal Ion Release and Dissolution ......................... 42
3.5 Galvanic Corrosion ........................................ 51
3.6 Microbiology-Induced Corrosion ............................ 53
3.7 Reaction with Hydrogen .................................... 61
References ................................................ 64
CHAPTER 4 Oxidation and Oxides
4.1 Formation of Titanium Oxides .............................. 81
4.1.1 Air-Formed Oxide ................................... 82
4.1.2 Passivation ........................................ 84
4.1.3 Oxidation at Elevated Temperatures ................. 85
4.2 Influences on Biological Process .......................... 86
4.3 Crystal Structures of Ti Oxides ........................... 87
4.4 Characterization of Oxides ................................ 90
4.5 Unique Applications of Titanium Oxide ..................... 91
4.6 Oxide Growth, Stability, and Breakdown .................... 91
4.7 Reaction with Hydrogen Peroxide ........................... 94
References ................................................ 97
CHAPTER 5 Mechanical and Tribological Behaviors
5.1 Fatigue .................................................. 107
5.2 Fracture and Fracture Toughness .......................... 111
5.3 Biotribological Actions .................................. 113
5.3.1 General ........................................... 113
5.3.2 Friction .......................................... 114
5.3.3 Wear and Wear Debris Toxicity ..................... 116
References .................................................... 120
CHAPTER 6 Biological Reaction
6.1 Toxicity ................................................. 127
6.2 Cytocompatibility (Toxicity to Cells) .................... 130
6.3 Allergic Reaction ........................................ 133
6.4 Metabolism ............................................... 136
6.5 Biocompatibility ......................................... 138
6.6 Biomechanical Compatibility .............................. 143
References .................................................... 148
CHAPTER 7 Implant-Related Biological Reactions
7.1 Bone Healing ............................................. 162
7.2 Hemocompatibility ........................................ 164
7.3 Cell Adhesion, Adsorption, Spreading, and
Proliferation ............................................ 166
7.4 Roughness and Cellular Response to Biomaterials .......... 179
7.5 Cell Growth .............................................. 182
7.6 Tissue Reaction and Bone Ingrowth ........................ 185
7.7 Osseointegration and Bone/Implant Interface .............. 193
7.8 Some Adverse Factors for Loosening Implants .............. 199
References .................................................... 200
CHAPTER 8 Implant Application
8.1 General .................................................. 217
8.2 Clinical Reports ......................................... 222
8.3 Surface and Interface Characterization ................... 227
8.4 Reactions in Chemical and Mechanical Environments ........ 230
8.5 Reaction in Biological Environment ....................... 235
References .................................................... 246
CHAPTER 9 Other Applications
9.1 Denture Bases ............................................ 257
9.2 Crowns and Bridges ....................................... 259
9.3 Clasps ................................................... 265
9.4 Posts and Cores .......................................... 266
9.5 Titanium Fiber and Titanium Oxide Powder as
Reinforcement for Bone Cement ............................ 267
9.6 Sealer Material .......................................... 268
9.7 Shape-Memory Dental Implant .............................. 268
9.8 Orthodontic Appliances ................................... 269
9.9 Endodontic Files and Reamers ............................. 271
9.10 Clamps and Staples ....................................... 273
References .................................................... 274
CHAPTER 10 Fabrication Technologies
10.1 Casting .................................................. 285
10.2 Machining ................................................ 288
10.3 Electro Discharge Machining (EDM) and CAD/CAM ............ 289
10.4 Isothermal Forming ....................................... 291
10.5 Superplastic Forming (SPF) ............................... 291
10.6 Diffusion Bonding (DB) ................................... 294
10.7 Powder Metallurgy ........................................ 295
10.8 Metal Injection Molding (MIM) ............................ 297
10.9 Laser Welding/Forming .................................... 299
10.10 Soldering ............................................... 301
10.11 Heat Treatment (HT) ..................................... 302
References .................................................... 303
CHAPTER 11 Surface Modifications
11.1 Sandblasting and Surface Texturing ....................... 314
11.2 Shot-Peening and Laser-Peening ........................... 317
11.3 Chemical, Electrochemical, and Thermal Modifications ..... 319
11.4 Coating .................................................. 322
11.4.1 Carbon, Glass, and Ceramic Coating ................ 322
11.4.2 Hydroxyapatite Coating ............................ 324
11.4.3 Ca-P Coating ...................................... 335
11.4.4 Composite Coating ................................. 342
11.4.5 TiN Coating ....................................... 347
11.4.6 Ti Coating ........................................ 353
11.4.7 Titania Film and Coating .......................... 357
11.5 Porosity Controlled Surface and Texturing ................ 360
11.6 Foamed Metal ............................................. 363
11.7 Coloring ................................................. 364
References .................................................... 364
CHAPTER 12 Future Perspectives
12.1 Titanium Industry and New Materials Development .......... 385
12.2 Amorphous Material ....................................... 388
12.3 Gradient Functional Material System ...................... 389
12.4 Coating .................................................. 390
12.5 Fluoride Treatment ....................................... 396
12.6 Surface Texturing and Porous/Foamed Material ............. 397
12.7 Laser Application ........................................ 398
12.8 Near-Net Shape (NNS) Forming and Nanotechnology .......... 400
12.9 Tissue Engineering and Scaffold Structure and
Materials ................................................ 403
12.10 Bioengineering and Biomaterial-Integrated Implant
System ........................................................ 406
References .................................................... 411
Epilogue ...................................................... 419
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