Tables ....................................................... xiii
Preface ........................................................ xv
1 ENERGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT ................................... 1
1.1 Introduction ............................................ 1
1.1.1 An Overview of This Text ......................... 2
1.2 Energy .................................................. 7
1.2.1 Electric Power ................................... 9
1.2.2 Transportation Energy ........................... 10
1.2.3 Energy as a Commodity ........................... 10
1.3 The Environment ........................................ 11
1.3.1 Managing Industrial Pollution 13 Bibliography ... 13
2 GLOBAL ENERGY USE AND SUPPLY ................................ 14
2.1 Introduction ........................................... 14
2.2 Global Energy Consumption .............................. 15
2.3 Global Carbon Emissions ................................ 17
2.4 Global Energy Sources .................................. 18
2.5 Global Electricity Consumption ......................... 20
2.6 End-Use Energy Consumption in the United States
2.6.1 Industrial Sector ............................... 22
2.6.2 Residential Sector .............................. 24
2.6.3 Commercial Sector ............................... 24
2.6.4 Transportation Sector ........................... 25
2.7 Global Energy Supply ................................... 26
2.7.1 Coal Reserves ................................... 26
2.7.2 Petroleum Reserves .............................. 27
2.7.3 Unconventional Petroleum Resources .............. 29
2.7.4 Natural Gas Reserves ............................ 29
2.7.5 Unconventional Gas Resources .................... 30
2.7.6 Summary of Fossil Reserves ...................... 31
2.8 Conclusion ............................................. 31
Problems .................................................... 32
Bibliography ................................................ 33
3 THERMODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES OF ENERGY CONVERSION ............... 34
3.1 Introduction ........................................... 34
3.2 The Forms of Energy .................................... 35
3.2.1 The Mechanical Energy of Macroscopic Bodies ..... 35
3.2.2 The Energy of Atoms and Molecules ............... 36
3.2.3 Chemical and Nuclear Energy ..................... 36
3.2.4 Electric and Magnetic Energy .................... 37
3.2.5 Total Energy .................................... 37
3.3 Work and Heat Interactions ............................. 37
3.3.1 Work Interaction ................................ 38
3.3.2 Heat Interaction ................................ 39
3.4 The First Law of Thermodynamics ........................ 39
3.5 The Second Law of Thermodynamics ....................... 40
3.6 Thermodynamic Properties ............................... 41
3.7 Steady Flow ............................................ 43
3.8 Heat Transfer and Heat Exchange ........................ 43
3.9 Ideal Heat Engine Cycles ............................... 44
3.9.1 The Carnot Cycle ................................ 45
3.9.2 The Rankine Cycle ............................... 47
3.9.3 The Otto Cycle .................................. 50
3.9.4 The Brayton Cycle ............................... 52
3.9.5 Combined Brayton and Rankine Cycles ............. 54
3.10 The Vapor Compression Cycle: Refrigeration and Heat
Pumps .................................................. 55
3.11 Energy Processing: First and Second Law Constraints .... 57
3.11.1 Fuel Heating Value .............................. 58
3.11.2 Free Energy Change .............................. 59
3.11.3 Separating Gases ................................ 60
3.12 Fuel (Thermal) Efficiency .............................. 60
3.13 Conclusion ............................................. 61
Problems .................................................... 62
Bibliography ................................................ 63
4 THERMODYNAMICS OF FOSSIL, BIOMASS, AND SYNTHETIC FUELS ...... 64
4.1 Introduction ........................................... 64
4.2 Fossil Fuels ........................................... 64
4.3 Combustion of Fossil Fuel .............................. 67
4.3.1 Fuel Heating Value .............................. 68
4.4 Biomass Fuels .......................................... 69
4.5 Synthetic Fuels ........................................ 70
4.5.1 Examples of Fossil Fuel Synthesis ............... 71
4.5.1.1 Coal to Gas ............................ 72
4.5.2 Examples of Biochemical Synthesis ............... 73
4.6 Biochemical Production of Ethanol from Biomass ......... 74
4.7 Electrochemical Reactions .............................. 74
4.7.1 Fuel Cells ...................................... 75
4.7.2 Practical Fuel Cell Systems ..................... 79
4.8 The Hydrogen Economy ................................... 80
4.8.1 Hydrogen Fuel for Vehicle Propulsion ............ 81
4.8.2 Synthetic Hydrogen from Fossil Fuels with
Carbon Capture and Storage ...................... 81
4.8.3 Hydrogen as Energy Storage for Intermittent
Electric Power Plants ........................... 82
4.8.4 Hydrogen as a Substitute for Pipeline Natural
Gas ............................................. 83
4.9 Conclusion ............................................. 83
Problems .................................................... 83
Bibliography ................................................ 84
5 ELECTRICAL ENERGY GENERATION, TRANSMISSION, AND STORAGE ..... 85
5.1 Introduction ........................................... 85
5.2 Electromechanical Power Transformation ................. 88
5.3 Electric Power Transmission ............................ 92
5.3.1 AC/DC Conversion ................................ 93
5.4 Energy Storage ......................................... 94
5.4.1 Electrostatic Energy Storage .................... 94
5.4.2 Magnetic Energy Storage ......................... 95
5.4.3 Electrochemical Energy Storage .................. 96
5.4.3.1 Lead-Acid Storage Battery .............. 97
5.4.3.2 Lithium-Ion Storage Battery ............ 98
5.4.3.3 Other Storage Batteries ................ 99
5.4.4 Mechanical Energy Storage ....................... 99
5.4.4.1 Pumped Hydropower ...................... 99
5.4.4.2 Flywheel Energy Storage ............... 100
5.4.5 Properties of Energy Storage Systems ........... 101
5.5 Conclusion ............................................ 102
Problems ................................................... 102
Bibliography ............................................... 103
6 FOSSIL-FUELED POWER PLANTS ................................. 104
6.1 Introduction .......................................... 104
6.2 Fossil-Fueled Power Plant Components .................. 105
6.2.1 Fuel Storage and Preparation ................... 106
6.2.2 Burner ......................................... 106
6.2.3 Boiler ......................................... 108
6.2.4 Steam Turbine .................................. 109
6.2.4.1 Impulse Turbine ....................... 110
6.2.4.2 Reaction Turbine ...................... 110
6.2.5 Gas Turbine .................................... 111
6.2.6 Condenser ...................................... 112
6.2.7 Cooling Tower .................................. 113
6.2.7.1 Wet Cooling Tower ..................... 113
6.2.7.2 Dry Cooling Tower ..................... 114
6.2.8 Generator ...................................... 114
6.2.9 Combustion Stoichiometry ....................... 115
6.2.10 Emission Control ............................... 116
6.2.10.1 Control of Products of Incomplete
Combustion and Carbon Monoxide ........ 117
6.2.10.2 Control of Particles .................. 117
6.2.10.3 Sulfur Control ........................ 121
6.2.10.4 Nitrogen Oxide Control ................ 125
6.2.10.5 Mercury Control ....................... 128
6.2.10.6 Toxic Metals .......................... 129
6.2.11 Waste Disposal ................................. 129
6.3 Advanced Cycles ....................................... 129
6.3.1 Combined Cycle ................................. 129
6.3.2 Coal Gasification Combined Cycle ............... 130
6.3.3 Cogeneration ................................... 132
6.3.4 Fuel Cell ...................................... 132
6.4 Conclusion ............................................ 133
Problems ................................................... 134
Bibliography ............................................... 136
7 NUCLEAR-FUELED POWER PLANTS ................................ 137
7.1 Introduction .......................................... 137
7.2 Nuclear Energy ........................................ 138
7.2.1 Nuclear Energy from Fission .................... 138
7.3 Radioactivity ......................................... 141
7.3.1 Decay Rates and Half-Lives ..................... 142
7.3.2 Units and Dosage ............................... 143
7.3.2.1 Health Effects of Radiation ........... 144
7.3.2.2 Radiation Protection Standards ........ 144
7.4 Nuclear Reactors ...................................... 145
7.4.1 Boiling Water Reactor .......................... 147
7.4.2 Pressurized Water Reactor ...................... 149
7.4.3 Gas-Cooled Reactor ............................. 151
7.4.4 Breeder Reactor ................................ 151
7.5 Nuclear Fuel Cycle .................................... 153
7.5.1 Mining and Refining ............................ 153
7.5.2 Gasification and Enrichment .................... 154
7.5.3 Spent Fuel Reprocessing ........................ 155
7.5.4 Temporary Waste Storage ........................ 156
7.5.5 Permanent Waste Storage ........................ 156
7.6 Fusion ................................................ 156
7.6.1 Magnetic Confinement ........................... 157
7.6.2 Laser Fusion ................................... 158
7.7 Energy Evolvement in Nuclear Fission and Fusion
Reactions ............................................. 158
7.8 Conclusions ........................................... 159
Problems ................................................... 159
Bibliography ............................................... 161
8 RENEWABLE ENERGY ........................................... 162
8.1 Introduction .......................................... 162
8.2 Hydropower ............................................ 164
8.2.1 Environmental Effects .......................... 167
8.3 Biomass Energy ........................................ 168
8.3.1 Photosynthesis ................................. 169
8.3.2 Biofuels ....................................... 169
8.3.2.1 Bioethanol ............................ 171
8.3.2.2 Biodiesel ............................. 171
8.3.3 Wood as Biofuel ................................ 171
8.3.4 Environmental Effects .......................... 172
8.4 Geothermal Energy ..................................... 173
8.4.1 Environmental Effects .......................... 176
8.5 Solar Energy .......................................... 176
8.5.1 Fiat Plate Collector ........................... 181
8.5.2 Focusing Collectors ............................ 183
8.5.2.1 Solar Thermal Farms ................... 185
8.5.3 Photovoltaic Cells ............................. 185
8.5.3.1 Photovoltaic Farms .................... 190
8.5.4 Environmental Effects .......................... 192
8.6 Wind Power ............................................ 192
8.6.1 Aerodynamics of Wind Turbine Operation ......... 193
8.6.2 Mechanical and Electrical Components ........... 196
8.6.3 Wind Resources ................................. 198
8.6.3.1 Capacity Factor ....................... 200
8.6.3.2 Effectiveness ......................... 202
8.6.3.3 Wind Variability and Predictability ... 202
8.6.4 Economical Turbine Designs ..................... 204
8.6.5 Wind Farms ..................................... 205
8.6.6 Integrating Wind Farms into the Electric
Power Network .................................. 208
8.6.6.1 Averaging an Array of Wind Farms ...... 209
8.6.7 Environmental Effects .......................... 210
8.7 Tidal Power ........................................... 210
8.7.1 Tidal Current Power ............................ 214
8.7.2 Environmental Effects .......................... 216
8.8 Ocean Wave Power ...................................... 216
8.8.1 Ocean Wave Energy and Power .................... 217
8.8.2 Ocean Wave Power Systems ....................... 220
8.8.1 Wave Power Farms ............................... 224
8.8.4 Environmental Impacts .......................... 224
8.9 Ocean Thermal Power ................................... 225
8.10 Capital Cost of Renewable Electric Power .............. 226
8.11 Conclusion ............................................ 228
Problems ................................................... 228
Bibliography ............................................... 231
9 AUTOMOTIVE TRANSPORTATION .................................. 233
9.1 Introduction .......................................... 233
9.2 Internal Combustion Engines for Highway Vehicles ...... 236
9.2.1 Combustion in SI and CI engines ................ 238
9.3 Engine Power and Performance .......................... 240
9.3.1 Engine Efficiency .............................. 242
9.4 Vehicle Power and Performance ......................... 244
9.4.1 Connecting the Engine to the Wheels ............ 246
9.5 Vehicle Fuel Efficiency ............................... 248
9.5.1 U.S. Vehicle Fuel Efficiency Regulations and
Test Cycles .................................... 248
9.5.2 Improving Vehicle Fuel Economy ................. 251
9.5.2.1 Improving Vehicle Performance ......... 251
9.5.2.2 Improving Engine Performance .......... 252
9.6 Electric-Drive Vehicles ............................... 254
9.6.1 Vehicles Powered by Storage Batteries .......... 254
9.6.2 Hybrid Vehicles ................................ 255
9.6.3 Fuel Cell Vehicles ............................. 256
9.7 Vehicle Emissions ..................................... 259
9.7.1 U.S. Vehicle Emission Standards ................ 259
9.7.2 Reducing Vehicle Emissions ..................... 261
9.7.2.1 Reducing Engine-Out Emissions ......... 263
9.7.2.2 Catalytic Converters for Exhaust Gas
Treatment ............................. 263
9.7.2.3 Evaporative Emissions ................. 265
9.7.2.4 Reducing CI Engine Emissions .......... 265
9.7.2.5 Fuel Quality and Its Regulation ....... 266
9.8 Conclusion ............................................ 267
Problems ................................................... 268
Bibliography ............................................... 269
10 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF FOSSIL FUEL USE ................... 271
10.1 Introduction .......................................... 271
10.2 Air Pollution ......................................... 272
10.2.1 U.S. Emission Standards ........................ 273
10.2.2 U.S. Ambient Standards ......................... 275
10.2.3 Health and Environmental Effects of Fossil-
Fuel-Related Air Pollutants .................... 277
10.2.4 Air Pollution Meteorology ...................... 279
10.2.5 Air Quality Modeling ........................... 281
10.2.5.1 Modeling of Steady-State Point
Source ................................ 281
10.2.5.2 Plume Rise ............................ 283
10.2.5.3 Steady-State Line Source .............. 284
10.2.5.4 Steady-State Area Source .............. 284
10.2.6 Photo-Oxidants ................................. 285
10.2.6.1 Photo-Oxidant Modeling ................ 287
10.2.7 Acid Deposition ................................ 290
10.2.7.1 Acid Deposition Modeling .............. 293
10.2.8 Regional Haze and Visibility Impairment ........ 295
10.3 Water Pollution ....................................... 297
10.3.1 Acid Mine Drainage and Coal Washing ............ 298
10.3.2 Solid Waste from Power Plants .................. 299
10.3.3 Water Use and Thermal Pollution from Power
Plants ......................................... 299
10.3.4 Atmospheric Deposition of Toxic Pollutants
onto Surface Waters ............................ 300
10.3.4.1 Toxic Metals .......................... 300
10.3.4.2 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons ...... 300
10.4 Land Pollution ........................................ 301
10.5 Conclusion 302 Problems ............................... 303
Bibliography ............................................... 304
11 GLOBAL WARMING AND CLIMATE CHANGE .......................... 305
11.1 Introduction .......................................... 305
11.2 What Is the Greenhouse Effect? ........................ 306
11.2.1 Solar and Terrestrial Radiation ................ 307
11.2.2 Sun-Earth-Space Radiative Equilibrium .......... 309
11.2.3 Modeling Global Warming ........................ 311
11.2.4 Global Warming Potential ....................... 312
11.2.5 Radiative Forcing .............................. 313
11.2.6 Results of Global Warming Modeling ............. 316
11.2.7 Observed Trend of Global Warming ............... 316
11.3 Associated Effects of Global Warming .................. 317
11.3.1 Sea Level Rise ................................. 317
11.3.2 Water Vapor and Precipitation Changes .......... 318
11.3.3 Hurricanes and Typhoons ........................ 318
11.3.4 Climate Changes ................................ 318
11.4 Greenhouse Gas Emissions .............................. 319
11.4.1 Carbon Dioxide Emissions and the Carbon
Cycle .......................................... 319
11.4.2 Methane ........................................ 320
11.4.3 Nitrous Oxide .................................. 322
11.4.4 Chlorofluorocarbons ............................ 322
11.4.5 Ozone .......................................... 323
11.5 Conclusion ............................................ 323
Problems ................................................... 324
Bibliography ............................................... 324
12 MITIGATING GLOBAL WARMING .................................. 326
12.1 Introduction .......................................... 326
12.2 Controlling Halocarbon Emissions ...................... 326
12.3 Controlling Nitrous Oxide Emissions ................... 327
12.4 Controlling Methane Emissions ......................... 327
12.4.1 Controlling Methane Generated by Coal Mining ... 328
12.4.2 Controlling Methane from Petroleum and
Natural Gas Operations ......................... 328
12.4.3 Controlling Landfill Methane ................... 328
12.5 Controlling Carbon Dioxide Emissions .................. 329
12.5.1 Controlling CO2 Emissions from Fossil-Fueled
Electric Power Plants .......................... 330
12.5.1.1 Shift from Coal or Oil to Natural
Gas Fuel .............................. 330
12.5.1.2 Natural Gas-Fired Combined Cycle
Plants ................................ 330
12.5.1.3 Capturing CO2 from the Flue Gas by
Chemical Absorption ................... 330
12.5.1.4 Oxyfuel Combustion with CO2 Capture ... 332
12.5.1.5 Integrated Coal Gasification
Combined Cycle Plants with CO2
Capture ............................... 333
12.5.1.6 Capturing CO2 after Gasification by
Physical Absorption ................... 334
12.5.1.7 Capturing CO2 after Gasification by
Membrane Separation ................... 335
12.6 Thermal Efficiency and Cost of Controlling CO2
Emissions from Power Plants ........................... 336
12.7 CO2 Sequestration ..................................... 337
12.7.1 Sequestration in Oil and Gas Reservoirs ........ 337
12.7.2 Sequestration in Coal Seams .................... 338
12.7.3 Sequestration in Deep Sedimentary Basins ....... 339
12.7.4 Sequestration in the Deep Ocean ................ 341
12.7.5 CO2 Removal from the Atmosphere ................ 344
12.7.5.1 Afforestation ......................... 344
12.7.5.2 Ocean Fertilization ................... 344
12.7.5.3 Mineral Sequestration ................. 344
12.7.5.4 CO2 Utilization ....................... 344
12.8 Conclusion ............................................ 346
Problems ................................................... 346
Bibliography ............................................... 348
13 CONCLUDING REMARKS ......................................... 349
13.1 Energy Resources ...................................... 349
13.2 Regulating the Environmental Effects of Energy Use .... 350
13.3 Global Climate Change ................................. 352
13.3.1 Coping with Climate Change ..................... 353
13.4 Conclusion ............................................ 355
Appendix A: Measuring Energy .................................. 356
Index ......................................................... 361
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