Nanoethics and nanotoxicology (Berlin; Heidelberg, 2011). - ОГЛАВЛЕНИЕ / CONTENTS
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ОбложкаNanoethics and nanotoxicology / ed. by P.Houdy, M.Lahmani, F.Marano. - Berlin; Heidelberg: Springer, 2011. - xliii, 620 p. - Incl. bibl. ref. - Ind.: p.613-620. - ISBN 978-3-642-20176-9
 

Оглавление / Contents
 
Introduction. Nanomaterials and Nanoproducts: World
Markets and Human and Environmental Impacts ................ XXXIII
Eric Gaffet ................................................ XXXIII
1  Nanotechnologies ......................................... XXXIV
2  Nanomaterials ............................................ XXXIV
3  Social and Economic Aspects ............................... XXXV
   3.1  Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials Markets ............. XXXV
   3.2  Financing in France .................................. XXXV
   3.3  Production and Applications of Nanomaterials ........ XXXVI
   3.4  Nanomaterials and Safety .............................. XLI
4  The Need for Studies in Nanotoxicity and Nanoethics ....... XLII
   References ................................................ XLII

Part I Nanotoxicity: Experimental Toxicology of
       Nanoparticles and Their Impact on Humans

1 Toxicity of Particles: A Brief History ........................ 3
   Marie-Claude Jaurand and Jean-Claude Pairon .................. 3
   1.1  Sociological and Technical Factors Conditioning
        the Study of Particle Toxicity .......................... 4
   1.2  Pathologies Caused by Inorganic Dusts ................... 6
        1.2.1  Pneumoconiosis ................................... 6
        1.2.2  Cancer ........................................... 7
   1.3  Particles Causing Pathogenic Effects in the Airways
        and Respiratory System .................................. 8
        1.3.1  Origin of Particles .............................. 8
        1.3.2  Types of Particle ................................ 9
   1.4  Evolution in the Methods for Investigating Toxicity .... 11
        1.4.1  Studies on Animals .............................. 11
        1.4.2  Isolated Cells .................................. 13
        1.4.3  Molecular Epidemiology .......................... 14
   1.5  Results on Particle Toxicity Mechanisms ................ 15
        1.5.1  Proven Major Risk Factors: Silica and
               Asbestos ........................................ 15
        1.5.2  Suspected Risk Factors: Artificial Mineral
               Fibres .......................................... 20
        1.5.3  Unknown Risk Factors: Nanoparticles ............. 21
   1.6  Results and Further Questions .......................... 22
   1.7  Conclusions and Prospects .............................. 25
   References .................................................. 26
2  Exposure, Uptake, and Barriers .............................. 37
   Armelle Baeza-Squiban and Sophie Lanone ..................... 37
   2.1  Exposure ............................................... 37
        2.1.1  Which Environmental Compartment? ................ 38
        2.1.2  What Kind of Particles? ......................... 38
        2.1.3  Exposure Context ................................ 39
        2.1.4  Dose ............................................ 39
   2.2  Uptake ................................................. 39
        2.2.1  Respiratory Route ............................... 39
        2.2.2  Cutaneous Route ................................. 44
        2.2.3  Digestive Route ................................. 46
   2.3  Barrier Crossing ....................................... 47
        2.3.1  Internalisation Mechanisms ...................... 47
        2.3.2  Particle Translocation .......................... 51
   2.4  Nanoparticle Biodistribution in the Organism.
        Elimination ............................................ 55
   2.5  Conclusion ............................................. 57
   References .................................................. 58
3  Experimental Models in Nanotoxicology ....................... 63
   Armelle Baeza-Squiban, Ghislaine Lacroix, and Frédéric
   Y. Bois ..................................................... 63
   3.1  In Vivo Models ......................................... 63
        3.1.1  Different Animal Species Used ................... 63
        3.1.2  Types of Animal Model ........................... 64
        3.1.3  Types of Exposure ............................... 66
        3.1.4  Targets ......................................... 68
   3.2  In Vitro Models ........................................ 69
        3.2.1  Cell Cultures ................................... 70
        3.2.2  In Vitro Methods in Regulatory Toxicology ....... 71
        3.2.3  In Vitro Methods for Assessing Nanoparticle
               Toxicity ........................................ 71
        3.2.4  Specific Problems for Assessing In Vitro
               Toxicity of Nanoparticles ....................... 74
   3.3  Predicting Penetration and Fate of Nanoparticles in
        the Body ............................................... 75
        3.3.1  Pharmacokinetics ................................ 76
        3.3.2  Pharmacokinetic Models .......................... 77
        3.3.3  Examples of Applications to Nanomaterials ....... 80
   3.4  Conclusion ............................................. 82
   References .................................................. 83
4  Nanoparticle Toxicity Mechanisms: Oxidative Stress and
   Inflammation ................................................ 87
   Béatrice L'Azou and Francelyne Marano ....................... 87
   4.1  Introduction ........................................... 87
        4.1.1  From Particulate Toxicology to Nanotoxicology ... 87
        4.1.2  Nanoparticles, Oxidative Stress, and
               Inflammation .................................... 88
        4.1.3  Acute Inflammatory Reaction and Inflammatory
               Defence Against Chronic Pathologies ............. 89
   4.2  Interactions Between Nanoparticles and Biological
        Media, Including Proteins .............................. 90
   4.3  Nanoparticles and Oxidative Stress ..................... 93
        4.3.1  Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) ................... 93
        4.3.2  Reactive Oxygen Species and Their Effects ....... 95
        4.3.3  Nanoparticles, ROS production, and Oxidative
               Stress .......................................... 97
   4.4  Nanoparticles and Inflammatory Response ................ 99
        4.4.1  Fine and Ultrafine Atmospheric Particles,
               Man-Made Nanoparticles, and Inflammation:
               A Clearly Established Relationship .............. 99
        4.4.2  Comparability of Cellular and Molecular
               Toxicity Mechanisms for Fine and Ultrafine
               Atmospheric Particles and Nanoparticles ........ 102
   4.5  Conclusion ............................................ 104
   References ................................................. 105
5  Nanoparticle Toxicity Mechanisms: Genotoxicity ............. 1ll
   Alain Botta and Laïla Benameur ............................. 1ll
   5.1  Mechanisms for Radical Species Production ............. 1ll
        5.1.1  Intrinsic Production ........................... 1ll
        5.1.2  Production by Interaction with Cell Targets .... 112
        5.1.3  Production Mediated by Inflammatory Reaction ... 112
   5.2  General Genotoxicity Mechanisms ....................... 112
        5.2.1  Direct Clastogenic Mechanisms .................. 113
        5.2.2  Indirect Clastogenic Mechanism ................. 113
        5.2.3  Aneugenic Mechanism  ........................... 114
        5.2.4  Production of DNA Adducts ...................... 114
   5.3  Detection and Characterisation of Genotoxicity ........ 115
        5.3.1  Detecting Primary DNA Alterations .............. 115
        5.3.2  Detecting Gene Mutations ....................... 116
        5.3.3  Detecting Chromosome Mutations ................. 117
   5.4  Nanoparticle Genotoxic Action Mechanisms: Current
        Data from the Main Scientific Studies ................. 118
        5.4.1  Carbon-Containing Nanoparticles ................ 119
        5.4.2  Metal-Containing Nanoparticles ................. 123
        5.4.3  Quantum Dots ................................... 128
        5.4.4  Other Types of Nanoparticle .................... 128
        5.4.5  Comparative Studies Between Different
               Nanoparticles .................................. 130
        5.4.6  Review of Genotoxicity Mechanisms .............. 130
   5.5  Conclusion ............................................ 130
   References ................................................. 142
6  Elements of Epidemiology ................................... 147
   Agnès Lefranc and Sophíe Larríeu ........................... 147
   6.1  Generalities .......................................... 147
   6.2  Studies of Ultrafine Particles and Lack of Data for
        Nanoparticles ......................................... 148
   6.3  Review of Epidemiological Studies of Ultrafine
        Particles Suspended in the Surrounding Atmosphere ..... 149
        6.3.1  Assessing Exposure ............................. 152
        6.3.2  Health Indicators .............................. 153
        6.3.3  Different Types of Analyses Carried out ........ 154
        6.3.4  Results ........................................ 155
        6.3.5  Interpretation of Findings ..................... 157
   6.4  Drawing Conclusions about Intrinsic Nanoparticle
        Effects ............................................... 159
   References ................................................. 160
7  Monitoring Nanoaerosols and Occupational Exposure .......... 163
   Olivier Witschger .......................................... 163
   7.1  Terminology and Definitions ........................... 164
        7.1.1  Nanoparticles .................................. 164
        7.1.2  Nanomaterials .................................. 166
   7.2  Characterising Occupational Exposure .................. 167
        7.2.1  Conventional Approach to Aerosols .............. 168
        7.2.2  Measurement Criteria for Exposure to
               Nanoaerosols ................................... 170
        7.2.3  Instrumentation and Methods .................... 174
        7.2.4  Sampling and Deposition of Particles ........... 178
        7.2.5  Sampling and Physicochemical Analysis .......... 179
        7.2.6  Measurement Strategies and Interpretation of
               Results ........................................ 180
   7.3  Occupational Exposure ................................. 183
        7.3.1  Exposure Factors and Scenarios: Qualitative
               Aspects ........................................ 183
        7.3.2  Practical Approach to Identify the
               Nanoparticulate Character of a Work Context .... 187
        7.3.3  Emission of Nanoparticles by Powdered
               Materials. Nanopowders ......................... 189
   7.4  Setting Up Reference Concentrations ................... 191
   7.5  Conclusion and Prospects .............................. 193
   References ................................................. 194
8  Monitoring Nanoaerosols and Environmental Exposure ......... 201
   Corinne Mandin, Olivier Le Bihan, and Olivier Aguerre-
   Chariol .................................................... 201
   8.1  Origin and Nature of Environmental Exposure ........... 202
        8.1.1  Life Cycle and Environmental Exposure .......... 202
        8.1.2  Exposure Routes ................................ 202
   8.2  Characterising Environmental Exposure ................. 203
        8.2.1  Nanoparticle Measurement in Air ................ 204
        8.2.2  Nanoparticle Measurement in Water .............. 207
        8.2.3  Nanoparticle Measurement in Soil ............... 208
   8.3  Conclusion ............................................ 208
   References ................................................. 208
9  Nanoparticles and Nanomaterials: Assessing the Risk to
   Human Health ............................................... 211
   Denis Bard ................................................. 211
   9.1  Identifying the Hazards ............................... 212
   9.2  Dose-Response Relationship ............................ 215
   9.3  Exposure .............................................. 216
   9.4  Conclusion ............................................ 217
   References ................................................. 217
10 Technical Risk Prevention in the Workplace ................. 219
   Myriam Ricaud .............................................. 219
   10.1 Prevention ............................................ 220
   10.2 Changing the Process .................................. 223
   10.3 Collective Safety Measures ............................ 224
        10.3.1 Closed Systems ................................. 224
        10.3.2 Ventilating and Purifying the Workplace
               Atmosphere ..................................... 225
        10.3.3 Air Filtering in the Workplace ................. 228
   10.4 Organisational Measures ............................... 231
        10.4.1 Work Area ...................................... 231
        10.4.2 Personal Hygiene ............................... 232
        10.4.3 Product Storage ................................ 232
        10.4.4 Waste Processing ............................... 233
        10.4.5 Accident and Incident Management ............... 233
   10.5 Personal Safety ....................................... 233
        10.5.1 Respiratory Protection ......................... 233
        10.5.2 Skin Protection ................................ 236
   10.6 Informing Staff ....................................... 237
        10.6.1 Labelling ...................................... 237
        10.6.2 Safety Data Sheets ............................. 237
   10.7 Staff Training ........................................ 237
   10.8 Conclusion ............................................ 238
   References ................................................. 239
11 Occupational Exposure to Nanoparticles and Medical
   Safety ..................................................... 243
   Patrick Brochard, Daniel Bloch, and Jean-Claude Pairon ..... 243
   11.1 Should We Organise a Specific Occupational Safety
        Programme for Workers Coming into Contact with
        Nanoparticles? ........................................ 244
   11.2 What Should Be the Basis for Organising Specific
        Medical Monitoring? ................................... 245
        11.2.1 What Experimental Toxicological Data Should
               Be Considered? ................................. 245
        11.2.2 What Human Data Should Be Considered? .......... 246
   11.3 Implementing Medical Surveillance ..................... 252
        11.3.1 Available Biomarkers ........................... 252
   11.4 Publications on Medical Surveillance .................. 255
   11.5 What Is on Offer in France? ........................... 256
        11.5.1 Surveillance Protocols for Cross-Sectional
               and Cohort Epidemiological Studies ............. 256
        11.5.2 Surveillance Protocols for Clinical Research
               Studies Screening the Effects of Controlled
               Exposure in the Laboratory ..................... 257
        11.5.3 Surveillance Protocols in the Workplace ........ 257
   11.6 Conclusion ............................................ 259
   References ................................................. 260

Part II  Nanotoxicity: Experimental Toxicology of
         Nanoparticles and Their Impact on the Environment

12 Surface Reactivity of Manufactured Nanoparticles ........... 269
   Mélanie Auffan, Jérôme Rose, Corinne Chanéac, Jean-Pierre
   Jolivet, Armand Masion, Mark R. Wiesner, and Jean-Yves
   Bottero .................................................... 269
   12.1 Nanoscale Description of Surfaces ..................... 270
        12.1.1 Surface Atoms .................................. 270
        12.1.2 Excess Surface Energy .......................... 272
        12.1.3 Surface Properties ............................. 274
   12.2 Relation Between Surface Energy and Control of Size
        and Shape ............................................. 275
        12.2.1 Proton Adsorption-Desorption ................... 275
        12.2.2 Polyol Adsorption .............................. 276
   12.3 Surface Reactivity and Photocatalysis ................. 277
        12.3.1 Photocatalysis: Definition ..................... 278
        12.3.2 Effect of Particle Size on Photocatalysis ...... 279
        12.3.3 Environmental Applications of Photocatalysis ... 281
   12.4 Surface Reactivity and Adsorption-Desorption .......... 282
        12.4.1 Pollutant Adsorption. Arsenic .................. 282
        12.4.2 Catalysis. MoS2 Particles ...................... 283
        12.4.3 Dissolution and Salting out of Toxic Ions ...... 284
   12.5 Conclusion ............................................ 285
   References ................................................. 285
13 Fate of Nanoparticles in Aqueous Media ..................... 291
   Jérôme Labille and Jean-Yves Bottero ....................... 291
   13.1 Specific Features of Nanoparticles .................... 293
        13.1.1 Increased Specific Surface Area ................ 293
        13.1.2 Size-Related Surface Energy .................... 293
        13.1.3 Consequences for the Fate of Nanoparticles
               in the Environment ............................. 294
   13.2 Nanoparticle Dispersion and Transport in Aqueous
        Media ................................................. 295
        13.2.1 Nanoparticle Surface Properties and Affinity
               for Water ...................................... 295
        13.2.2 Stability of Nanoparticles in Suspension.
               Dispersion and Aggregation ..................... 298
        13.2.3 Nanoparticle Mobility and Attachment in
               Water-Saturated Porous Media ................... 312
   13.3 Conclusion ............................................ 321
   References ................................................. 322
14 Ecotoxicology: Nanoparticle Reactivity and Living
   Organisms .................................................. 325
   Mélanie Auffan, Emmanuel Flahaut, Antoine Thill, Florence
   Mouchet, Marie Carrière, Laury Gauthier, Wafa Achouak,
   Jérôme Rose, Mark R. Wiesner, and Jean-Yves Bottero ........ 325
   14.1 Physicochemical Properties and Ecotoxicity of
        Nanoparticles ......................................... 326
        14.1.1 Nanoparticle Aggregation ....................... 327
        14.1.2 Chemical Stability of Nanoparticles ............ 329
        14.1.3 Functionalised or Passivated Nanoparticles ..... 330
   14.2 Ecotoxicity for Bacteria .............................. 331
        14.2.1 Bacteria ....................................... 332
        14.2.2 Effects of Nanoparticles on Bacterial
               Viability ...................................... 333
        14.2.3 Exposure of Bacteria to Nanoparticles .......... 333
        14.2.4 Oxidative Stress ............................... 337
   14.3 Ecotoxicity for Aquatic Organisms ..................... 338
        14.3.1 Carbon Nanoparticles ........................... 338
        14.3.2 Metal and Metal Oxide Nanoparticles ............ 346
        14.3.3 Latex Nanoparticles ............................ 347
        14.3.4 Co-contamination by Nanoparticles and Metals
               or Organic Pollutants .......................... 347
   14.4 Phytotoxicity and Translocation in Plants ............. 348
        14.4.1 Basic Tools for Studying Nanoparticle
               Phytotoxicity .................................. 349
        14.4.2 Phytotoxic Effects: Inhibition of Germination
               and Growth ..................................... 349
        14.4.3 Nanoparticle Translocation from Roots to
               Aerial Parts ................................... 350
   14.5 Conclusion ............................................ 350
   References ................................................. 352
15 Toxicological Models Part A: Toxicological Studies of
   Nanoparticles on Biological Targets and Attempts
   to Attenuate Toxicity by Encapsulation Techniques .......... 359
   Roberta Brayner and Fernand Fiévet ......................... 359
   15.1 Chemical Synthesis of Nanoparticles and
        Toxicological Studies ................................. 363
        15.1.1 Type II-VI Semiconductor Nanoparticles ......... 364
        15.1.2 ZnO Nanoparticles .............................. 367
   15.2 New Ways to Synthesise Protected Nanoparticles with
        Reduced Toxicological Effects ......................... 370
        15.2.1 Surface Functionalisation and Passivation
               of Type II-VI Semiconductor Nanoparticles ...... 370
        15.2.2 Nanoparticle Encapsulation by an SiO2 Shell .... 372
   15.3 Conclusion ............................................ 375
   References ................................................. 375
16 Toxicological Models Part B: Environmental Models .......... 379
   Jeanne Garric and Eric Thybaud ............................. 379
   16.1 Types of Nanoparticles Investigated ................... 380
   16.2 Types of Preparation .................................. 380
   16.3 Compartments .......................................... 382
        16.3.1 Terrestrial Compartment ........................ 382
        16.3.2 Aquatic Compartment ............................ 385
   16.4 Limitations of these Tests ............................ 391
   16.5 Conclusion and Prospects .............................. 391
   References ................................................. 392
17 Life Cycle Models and Risk Assessment ...................... 397
   Jérôme Labille, Christine O. Hendren, Armand Masion,
   and Mark R. Wiesner ........................................ 397
   17.1 Potential and Risks of Nanotechnologies ............... 397
        17.1.1 Hazards ........................................ 399
        17.1.2 Exposure ....................................... 399
   17.2 Monitoring Nanomaterials Throughout Their Life Cycle
        to Predict Emissions into the Environment ............. 400
   17.3 Nanomaterial Interactions with the Environment ........ 402
        17.3.1 Models for Estimating Existing Risks ........... 403
        17.3.2 The Situation for Nanomaterials ................ 403
        17.3.3 Degradation of Nanomaterials ................... 404
        17.3.4 Compiling Data ................................. 405
   17.4 Characterising the Hazards of Nanotechnologies:
        Toxicity .............................................. 405
   17.5 Present State of Knowledge Regarding Nano Risk ........ 406
   17.6 Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles in Sunscreen Creams .... 408
        17.6.1 Protocol for Laboratory Reconstitution of
               Deterioration .................................. 409
        17.6.2 Nanomaterial Dispersion Kinetics in an
               Aqueous Medium ................................. 410
        17.6.3 Characterising Deterioration Reactions ......... 411
        17.6.4 Life Cycle in a Biotic Medium and
               Introduction into the Food Chain ............... 412
   17.7 Conclusion ............................................ 415
   References ................................................. 416

Part III Nanoethics: Ethical Questions Raised by
Nanotechnology and Scientific Discovery on the Nanoscale

18 Nanoethics: Challenges and Opportunities ................... 423
   Alain Pompidou ............................................. 423
   References ................................................. 426
19 Ethics and Medicine: Philosophical Guidelines for a
   Responsible Use of Nanotechnology .......................... 427
   Corine Pelluchon ........................................... 427
   19.1 Definition of Ethics .................................. 427
   19.2 Exacerbation of Problems Inherent in Conventional
        Techniques ............................................ 428
   19.3 The Use of Nanotechnologies and Society's Purpose ..... 429
   19.4 What Criterion Can Distinguish Between Legitimate
        and Illegitimate Uses of Bionanotechnologies? ......... 430
   19.5 International Norms and the Political Community ....... 432
   References ................................................. 433

Part IV Nanoethics and Regulation: The Situation in France

20 Situation in France: Ethical Reflection on Research
   in Nanoscience and Nanotechnology .......................... 437
   Jacques Bordé .............................................. 437
   20.1 Awareness of Nanotechnological Risk in North
        America ............................................... 437
   20.2 Reaction of the European Union ........................ 437
   20.3 Mobilisation of Research in the Human Sciences ........ 438
   20.4 Motivation for the Ethics Committee of the CNRS ....... 439
   20.5 A State of Turmoil in France .......................... 440
   20.6 Position of the CNRS .................................. 441
   20.7 The Position of Other French Institutions ............. 443
   20.8 Further Developments Within the CNRS .................. 444
   20.9 Recommendations by COMETS ............................. 445
   20.10 Impact of the COMETS Conclusions and the Role of
         the CNRS in the Debate ............................... 446
   20.11 Dialogue with Civil Society .......................... 447
   20.12 Preparing Researchers for a New Form of
         Communication ........................................ 448
   20.13 Conclusion ........................................... 449
   References ................................................. 451
21 Situation in France: Nanoparticles in the Grenelle
   Environment Forum .......................................... 455
   Philippe Hubert ............................................ 455
   21.1 Health-Environment Working Group and Conclusions
        of the Round Tables ................................... 455
   21.2 Recommendations of the Three Operational Committees ... 457
   21.3 Law and Prospects Opened by the Grenelle Environment
        Forum ................................................. 459
   21.4 Conclusion ............................................ 459
22 Situation in France: The Position of a Federation of
   Environmental Protection NGOs .............................. 463
   José Cambou and Dominique Proy ............................. 463
23 Situation in France: The Position of a Consumer
   Protection Group ........................................... 475
   Christian Huard and Bernard Umbrecht  ...................... 475
   23.1 French National Consumer Council ...................... 475
   23.2 Consumer Information: Failings and Modest Steps
        Forward ............................................... 477
   23.3 The Need to Go Beyond Labels. A New Form of
        Governance ............................................ 480
24 Situation in France: The Principle of Precaution ........... 483
   François Ewald ............................................. 483
   24.1 Definition ............................................ 483
   24.2 Legal Status of the Precautionary Principle ........... 487
   24.3 Decisional Aspects of the Precautionary Principle ..... 488
        24.3.1 Risk Assessment ................................ 489
        24.3.2 Risk Management ................................ 489
        24.3.3 Communication .................................. 490
   24.4 Beyond the Principle of Precaution .................... 490

Part V Nanoethics and Regulation: The Situation in Europe
and the World

25 Situation in Europe and the World: A Code of Conduct
   for Responsible European Research in Nanoscience and
   Nanotechnology ............................................. 497
   Philippe Galiay ............................................ 497
   25.1 Introduction .......................................... 497
   25.2 European Research ..................................... 498
   25.3 EC Research and Nanotechnology ........................ 499
        25.3.1 EC Strategy and Action Plan for Nanoscience
               and Nanotechnology ............................. 500
        25.3.2 Support for Research in Nanoscience and
               Nanotechnology ................................. 500
   25.4 Science in Society .................................... 501
        25.4.1 Toward a Governance That Makes More Allowance
               for Scientific Knowledge ....................... 502
        25.4.2 Elaboration, Dissemination, and Application
               of Ethical Rules ............................... 502
   25.5 EC Recommendation for a Code of Conduct ............... 503
        25.5.1 Choice of Recommendation ....................... 503
        25.5.2 Content of Recommendation ...................... 503
        25.5.3 The Code of Conduct ............................ 504
        25.5.4 Code of Conduct and Ethical Review ............. 506
        25.5.5 Code of Conduct and Regulation ................. 507
        25.5.6 Code of Conduct and International Dialogue ..... 507
   25.6 Conclusion ............................................ 508
   References ................................................. 508
26 Situation in Europe and the World: Societal Risks and
   Benefits of New Nanometric Products ........................ 511
   Jean-Marc Brignon .......................................... 511
   26.1 Socio-Economic Assessment of Chemical Substances in
        Europe ................................................ 511
   26.2 Does the REACH Regulation Apply to Nanometric
        Products? ............................................. 512
   26.3 Limitations of Cost-Benefit Analysis in the Case of
        Nanotechnology ........................................ 513
   26.4 Using the Results of Socio-Economic Analysis.
        The Precautionary Principle ........................... 515
   26.5 Beyond Risk and Precaution ............................ 515
   References ................................................. 516
27 Situation in Europe and the World: The European
   Nanotechnology Observatory ................................. 519
   M. Morrison ................................................ 519
   27.1 The Role of the Observatory NANO Project .............. 519
   27.2 Approach Taken by the ObservatoryNANO ................. 520
   27.3 Interaction with Other Organizations .................. 521
        27.3.1 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
               Development (OECD) ............................. 521
        27.3.2 International Activities in Standards .......... 522
        27.3.3 European Technology Platforms (ETPs) and
               Joint Technology Initiatives (JTIs) ............ 522
        27.3.4 Manufacturing Initiatives ...................... 522
   27.4 Science and Technology Assessment ..................... 524
        27.4.1 Publication Analysis ........................... 527
        27.4.2 Patent Analysis ................................ 528
   27.5 Economic Analysis ..................................... 528
   27.6 Integrating an Analysis of the Wider Aspects of
        Nanotechnology Development ............................ 534
        27.6.1 Ethical and Societal Aspects ................... 535
        27.6.2 Environment, Health and Safety (EHS) Issues .... 535
        27.6.3 Developments in Regulation and Standards ....... 536
   27.7 Supporting Research and Business ...................... 537
   27.8 Establishing a Permanent European Observatory on
        Nanotechnologies ...................................... 538
   27.9 Conclusion and Future Work ............................ 538
   27.10 About the Project Consortium ......................... 539
   References ................................................. 539
28 Situation in Europe and the World: Nanotechnology and
   Scientific Policy. Action of UN Agencies in Developing
   Countries .................................................. 541
   Shamila Nair-Bedouelle ..................................... 541
   28.1 Scientific Policy for Sustainable Development ......... 541
   28.2 Missions of Specialised UN Agencies ................... 542
   28.3 The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) ............... 543
        28.3.1 Objectives ..................................... 543
        28.3.2 Current Status of MDGs ......................... 543
   28.4 Nanotechnology and Politics ........................... 544
   28.5 Other Political Considerations Regarding
        Nanotechnology: Patents ............................... 546
   28.6 Needs of Developing Countries ......................... 547
   28.7 The Future: Nanotechnology and Development ............ 548
   References ................................................. 548
29 Nanotechnology and the Law  ................................ 551
   Sonia Desmoulin-Canselier and Stéphanie Lacour ............. 551
   29.1 The Law in the Face of Societal Concerns over Nano-
        Objects and Nanotechnology ............................ 552
        29.1.1 How to Account for Uncertain, Even Fuzzy
               Risks .......................................... 554
        29.1.2 Taking into Account the Life Cycle of
               Nanoproducts ................................... 557
   29.2 The Law in the Face of Nanotechnology Development
        Policies .............................................. 559
        29.2.1 The Territoriality of the Law in a Context
               of International Competition ................... 560
        29.2.2 The Specificity of the Law and Alternative
               Means of Regulation ............................ 563
   References ................................................. 565

Part VI Nanoethics and Social Issues

30 How the Risks of Nanotechnology Are Perceived .............. 573
   Daniel Boy and Solange Martin .............................. 573
   30.1 Criteria Giving Structure to Perception ............... 573
   30.2 Nanotechnology: A Checklist of Risk Perception ........ 575
        30.2.1 The Attitude Toward Nanotechnology in France ... 575
        30.2.2 Attitudes Toward Nanotechnology in the
               European Union ................................. 577
        30.2.3 European Experts and the Different
               Applications of Nanotechnology ................. 580
   30.3 What Should Be Done with Perceptions? ................. 583
   References ................................................. 585
31 Robotics, Ethics, and Nanotechnology ....................... 587
   Jean-Gabriel Ganascia ...................................... 587
   31.1 Preliminaries ......................................... 587
   31.2 Prehistory and History of Robot Ethics ................ 588
   31.3 Roboethics ............................................ 590
        31.3.1 A Roadmap for Roboethics ....................... 591
        31.3.2 Ethics of Virtual Robots ....................... 593
        31.3.3 Responsibility Toward Robots ................... 595
   31.4 Extrapolation to Nanoscience .......................... 596
        31.4.1 Reality and Virtuality ......................... 596
        31.4.2 Do We Need a Roadmap for Nanoethics? ........... 597
        31.4.3 Collision and Contamination Between Spheres
               of Intelligibility ............................. 598
   References ................................................. 599
32 Ethics and Industrial Production ........................... 601
   Daniel Bernard ............................................. 601
   32.1 Some Observations ..................................... 603
   32.2 Strategy .............................................. 606
   32.3 Safety ................................................ 607
   32.4 Acquisition of Knowledge .............................. 609
   32.5 Transparency .......................................... 611
   32.6 Conclusion ............................................ 612
   References ................................................. 612
Index ......................................................... 613


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Посещение N 1719 c 04.09.2012