Miller B.G. Clean coal engineering technology (Burlington, 2011). - ОГЛАВЛЕНИЕ / CONTENTS
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ОбложкаMiller B.G. Clean coal engineering technology. - Burlington: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2011. - xiv, 681 p.: ill., maps. - Incl. bibl. ref. - Ind.: p.661-661. - ISBN 978-1-85617-710-8
 

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Оглавление / Contents
 
   Preface ................................................... xiii

Part I - Background Information

1  Coal as Fuel ................................................. 1
   1.1  Organization of this Book ............................... 1
   1.2  The History of Coal Use ................................. 2
   1.3  Coal Use before the Industrial Revolution ............... 2
        1.3.1 The Early History of U.S. Coal Mining and Use ..... 3
   1.4  Coal Use during the Industrial Revolution ............... 4
   1.5  The Post-Industrial Revolution Use of Coal .............. 5
   1.6  An Overview of Energy in the United States .............. 6
   1.7  Coal Production in the United States ................... 12
   1.8  Coal Consumption in the United States .................. 20
   1.9  U.S. Coal Exports and Imports .......................... 22
   1.10 World Primary Energy Production and Consumption ........ 24
        1.10.1 World Primary Energy Production ................. 24
        1.10.2 World Primary Energy Consumption ................ 31
   1.11 Projections of Energy Use and Coal's Contribution
        to the Energy Mix ...................................... 35
        1.11.1 World Consumption of Liquid Fuels ............... 38
        1.11.2 World Consumption of Natural Gas ................ 39
        1.11.3 World Consumption of Coal ....................... 39
        1.11.4 World Consumption of Nuclear Energy ............. 44
        1.11.5 World Consumption of Renewable Energy ........... 45
        1.11.6 Energy Outlook for the United States ............ 46
   1.12 Coal's Role in the U.S.'s 2001 Energy Policy ........... 49
2  The Chemical and Physical Characteristics of Coal ........... 53
   2.1  The Definition of Coal ................................. 53
   2.2  Origin of Coal ......................................... 53
   2.3  Coalification .......................................... 54
   2.4  The Classification of Coal ............................. 57
        2.4.1  Basic Coal Analysis ............................. 57
        2.4.2  The Ranks of Coal ............................... 59
        2.4.3  The Types of Coal ............................... 61
        2.4.4  The Grades of Coal .............................. 63
        2.4.5  Classification Systems .......................... 63
3  The Worldwide Distribution of Coal .......................... 69
   3.1  Coal Distribution and Resources ........................ 69
        3.1.1 Coal Reserves throughout the World ............... 70
   3.2  Major Coal-Producing Regions in the World .............. 74
        3.2.1  North America ................................... 74
        3.2.2  Eurasia ......................................... 78
        3.2.3  Middle East, Asia, and Oceania .................. 80
        3.2.4  Europe .......................................... 81
        3.2.5  Africa .......................................... 82
        3.2.6  Central and South America ....................... 83
4  The Effect of Coal Usage on Human Health and the
   Environment ................................................. 85
   4.1  Coal Mining ............................................ 86
        4.1.1  Underground Mining .............................. 86
        4.1.2  Surface Mining .................................. 96
        4.1.3  Legislation and Reclamation ..................... 99
   4.2  Coal Preparation ...................................... 100
        4.2.1  Water Contamination from Preparation Plants .... 102
        4.2.2  Air Contamination from Preparation Plants ...... 102
        4.2.3  Refuse Contaminants from Preparation Plants .... 102
        4.2.4  Health and Safety Issues ....................... 103
   4.3  Coal Transportation ................................... 104
   4.4  Coal Combustion By-Products ........................... 105
   4.5  Emissions from Coal Combustion ........................ 107
        4.5.1  Sulfur Oxides .................................. 107
        4.5.2  Nitrogen Oxides ................................ 110
        4.5.3  Particulate Matter ............................. 112
        4.5.4  Organic Compounds .............................. 116
        4.5.5  Carbon Monoxide ................................ 116
        4.5.6  Trace Elements ................................. 117
        4.5.7  Greenhouse Gases-Carbon Dioxide ................ 124

Part II - Coal Utilization Technologies

5  Introduction to Coal Utilization Technologies .............. 133
   5.1  Coal Combustion ....................................... 133
        5.1.1  Brief History of Boilers and Coal Combustion
               Systems ........................................ 134
        5.1.2  Basic Steam Fundamentals and their
               Application to Boiler Development .............. 142
        5.1.3  The Chemistry of Coal Combustion ............... 144
        5.1.4  Coal Combustion Systems ........................ 149
        5.1.5  Influence of Coal Properties on Utility
               Boiler Design .................................. 166
   5.2  Carbonization ......................................... 172
        5.2.1  Brief History of Carbonization (High-
               Temperature) ................................... 174
        5.2.2  Coking Processes ............................... 175
        5.2.3  Coal Properties for Coke Production ............ 178
        5.2.4  Coking Conditions .............................. 179
        5.2.5  Low-Temperature Carbonization .................. 179
   5.3  Gasification .......................................... 183
        5.3.1  Brief History of Coal Gasification ............. 183
        5.3.2  Principles of Coal Gasification ................ 184
        5.3.3  Gasifier Types ................................. 185
        5.3.4  Influence of Coal Properties on Gasification ... 189
        5.3.5  Regional Distribution of Gasification
               Systems ........................................ 191
        5.3.6  Commercial Gasification Systems ................ 194
   5.4  Liquefaction .......................................... 205
        5.4.1  The Beginning of the Synthetic Fuel Industry ... 206
        5.4.2  Indirect Liquefaction-Fischer-Tropsch
               Synthesis ...................................... 207
        5.4.3  Direct Liquefaction ............................ 209
6  Anatomy of a Coal-Fired Power Plant ........................ 219
   6.1  Coal Transport to the Power Plant ..................... 219
   6.2  Coal Handling, Storage, and Processing ................ 223
        6.2.1  Coal Handling .................................. 224
        6.2.2  Coal Storage ................................... 225
        6.2.3  Coal Processing/Size Reduction ................. 226
   6.3  Steam Generation ...................................... 236
        6.3.1  Furnace and Convection Pass .................... 236
        6.3.2  Steam Superheaters and Reheaters ............... 237
        6.3.3  Economizers .................................... 237
        6.3.4  Steam Drums .................................... 237
        6.3.5  Steam Temperature Controls ..................... 239
        6.3.6  Air Heaters (Preheaters) ....................... 239
   6.4  Steam Turbines and Electricity Generation ............. 239
        6.4.1  Steam Turbines ................................. 239
        6.4.2  Electric Generators ............................ 242
   6.5  Steam Condensers and Cooling Towers ................... 242
        6.5.1  Steam Condensers ............................... 242
        6.5.2  Cooling Towers ................................. 243
   6.6  Water Treatment ....................................... 243
   6.7  Environmental Protection .............................. 246
   6.8  Ash and By-Product Handling ........................... 247
        6.8.1  Bottom Ash Systems ............................. 247
        6.8.2  Convective Pass/Economizer Ash Systems ......... 247
        6.8.3  Fly Ash Systems ................................ 248
        6.8.4  Scrubber Sludge Systems ........................ 249
7  Clean Coal Technologies for Advanced Power Generation ...... 251
   7.1  Power Cycles .......................................... 251
        7.1.1  Rankine Cycle .................................. 251
        7.1.2  The Brayton Cycle .............................. 253
        7.1.3  Combined Cycle ................................. 253
   7.2  Pulverized Coal-Fired Power Plants .................... 254
        7.2.1  Advanced Pulverized Coal-Fired Plants .......... 255
        7.2.2  Advanced Ultra-Supercritical Research and
               Development .................................... 260
        7.2.3  Oxy-Fuel Firing in Pulverized Coal-Fired
               Boilers ........................................ 261
   7.3  Fluidized-Bed Combustion .............................. 264
        7.3.1  Introduction ................................... 264
        7.3.2  Heat Transfer .................................. 266
        7.3.3  Combustion Efficiency .......................... 267
        7.3.4  Fuel Flexibility ............................... 267
        7.3.5  Pollutant Formation and Control ................ 269
        7.3.6  Supercritical Fluidized-Bed Boilers and Oxy-
               Coal Firing in Fluidized-Bed Boilers ........... 282
   7.4  Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle ................ 282
        7.4.1  Introduction ................................... 283
        7.4.2  Gasification Island ............................ 284
        7.4.3  Gas Treatment and Sulfur Recovery .............. 285
        7.4.4  Combined Cycle Power Plant ..................... 290
        7.4.5  IGCC with Carbon Capture ....................... 290
        7.4.6  Benefits and Limits of IGCC .................... 291
        7.4.7  Commercial Status .............................. 294
   7.5  IGCC Research Needs ................................... 296

Part III - Emissions and Carbon Management

8  Coal-Fired Emissions and Legislative Action ................ 301
   8.1  Major Coal-Related Health Episodes .................... 301
        8.1.1  Pre-Industrial Revolution ...................... 301
        8.1.2  Post-Industrial Revolution ..................... 302
   8.2  History of Legislative Action for Coal-Fired Power
        Plants ................................................ 303
        8.2.1  Pre-1970 Legislation ........................... 303
        8.2.2  The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1970 ........... 305
        8.2.3  Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977 and
               Prevention of Significant Deterioration ........ 315
        8.2.4  Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 ............... 317
        8.2.5  Additional NOx Regulations and Trading
               Programs ....................................... 324
        8.2.6  Clean Air Interstate Rule ...................... 327
        8.2.7  Clean Air Mercury Rule ......................... 328
        8.2.8  New Source Review .............................. 330
        8.2.9  Fine Particulate Matter ........................ 332
        8.2.10 Impending Legislation and Pollutants under
               Consideration for Regulation ................... 333
   8.3  Emissions Legislation in Other Countries .............. 337
        8.3.1  Sulfur Dioxide ................................. 337
        8.3.2  Nitrogen Oxides ................................ 341
        8.3.3  Particulate Matter ............................. 345
        8.3.4  Trace Elements/Mercury ......................... 346
        8.3.5  Carbon Dioxide ................................. 348
   8.4  Air Quality and Coal-Fired Emissions .................. 349
        8.4.1  Six Principal Pollutants ....................... 351
        8.4.2  Acid Rain ...................................... 362
        8.4.3  Hazardous Air Pollutants ....................... 366
        8.4.4  Carbon Dioxide ................................. 369
9  Emissions Control Strategies for Power Plants .............. 375
   9.1  Currently Regulated Emissions ......................... 376
        9.1.1  Sulfur Dioxide ................................. 377
        9.1.2  Nitrogen Oxides ................................ 413
        9.1.3  Particulate Matter ............................. 437
   9.2  Pollutants with Pending Compliance Regulation ......... 459
        9.2.1 Mercury ......................................... 459
   9.3  Multipollutant Control ................................ 472
        9.3.1  ECO Process .................................... 473
        9.3.2  Airborne Process ............................... 474
        9.3.3  Multipollutant Control for Smaller Coal-Fired
               Boilers ........................................ 474
        9.3.4  Nalco Mobotec Systems .......................... 474
        9.3.5  Others ......................................... 475
10 CO2 Capture and Storage .................................... 483
   10.1 CO2 Capture Technologies .............................. 485
        10.1.1 Precombustion (IGCC) CO2 Capture ............... 486
        10.1.2 Oxy-Fuel Combustion ............................ 487
        10.1.3 Postcombustion CO2 Capture ..................... 487
        10.1.4 Biomass Cofiring ............................... 496
   10.2 Transport of CO2 ...................................... 497
   10.3 C02 Storage ........................................... 498
        10.3.1 Geologic Storage ............................... 498
        10.3.2 Ocean Storage .................................. 500
        10.3.3 Terrestrial Storage ............................ 501
        10.3.4 Mineral Carbonation ............................ 501
   10.4 Economics of CO2 Sequestration ........................ 502
        10.4.1 Capture Costs .................................. 502
        10.4.2 Costs of Transporting CO2 ...................... 507
        10.4.3 Storage Costs .................................. 508
   10.5 Permanence and Monitoring, Mitigation, and
        Verification .......................................... 509

Part IV - Clean Coal Technology Programs and Energy Security

11 U.S. and International Activities for Near-Zero Emissions
   during Electricity Generation .............................. 513
   11.1 Introduction to U.S. Clean Coal Technology Programs ... 513
   11.2 Clean Coal Technology Demonstration Program ........... 514
        11.2.1 CCTDP Evolution ................................ 515
        11.2.2 CCTDP Funding and Costs ........................ 516
        11.2.3 CCTDP Projects ................................. 516
        11.2.4 CCTDP Accomplishments .......................... 537
   11.3 Power Plant Improvement Initiative .................... 541
        11.3.1 PPII Projects .................................. 542
        11.3.2 Benefits of the PPII ........................... 546
   11.4 Clean Coal Power Initiative ........................... 547
        11.4.1 Program Importance ............................. 547
        11.4.2 Round 1 CCPI Projects .......................... 548
        11.4.3 Round 2 CCPI Projects .......................... 553
        11.4.4 Round 3 CCPI (CCPI-3A and CCPI-3B) Projects .... 556
        11.4.5 CCPI Benefits .................................. 558
   11.5 Benefits of DOE's Clean Coal Technology Programs ...... 559
   11.6 Vision 21 ............................................. 563
        11.6.1 Vision 21 Technologies ......................... 563
        11.6.2 Vision 21 Benefits ............................. 565
   11.7 Future Gen ............................................ 565
   11.8 DOE Carbon Sequestration Program ...................... 568
   11.9 International Carbon Sequestration Programs ........... 572
   11.10 International Clean Coal Technology and Carbon
        Sequestration Activities .............................. 572
        11.10.1 Canada ........................................ 573
        11.10.2 Australia ..................................... 574
        11.10.3 Germany ....................................... 576
        11.10.4 Japan ......................................... 576
        11.10.5 China ......................................... 577
        11.10.6 Others ........................................ 578
12 Coal and Energy Security ................................... 585
   12.1 Overview of U.S. Energy Security Issues ............... 586
   12.2 The Future of Energy in the United States ............. 588
   12.3 Energy and the Economy ................................ 589
   12.4 Natural Gas Use in Power Generation ................... 592
   12.5 Coal's Potential to Reduce U.S. Dependence on
        Imported Crude Oil .................................... 594
   12.6 Coal's Role in Future U.S. Electric Power
        Generation ............................................ 596
   12.7 Production of Hydrogen from Coal ...................... 603
   12.8 Coal's Role in International Energy Security and
        Sustainable Development ............................... 604
        12.8.1 International Demand for Electricity ........... 604
        12.8.2 Advanced Coal Technology Application Support
               for Sustained Coal Utilization ................. 606
        12.8.3 Energy Security ................................ 607
        12.8.4 Sustainable Development ........................ 608
   12.9 Concluding Statements ................................. 609

Part V - Supporting Information

Appendix A  Regional Definitions .............................. 613
   A.l  Organization for Economic Cooperation and
        Development (OECD) .................................... 613
   A.2  Non-Organization for Economic Cooperation and
        Development (Non-OECD) ................................ 613
   A.3  European Union (EU) ................................... 614
   A.4  Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries
        (OPEC) ................................................ 614
Appendix В  Commercial Gasification Facilities Worldwide ...... 615
Appendix С  Coal-Fired Emission Factors ....................... 625
Appendix D  Original List of Hazardous Air Pollutants ......... 651
Appendix E  Initial 263 Units Identified in Phase I (SO2) of
   the Acid Rain Program ...................................... 657

   Index ...................................................... 661


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