Baklanov M. Advanced interconnects for ULSI technology (Chichester, 2012). - ОГЛАВЛЕНИЕ / CONTENTS
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ОбложкаBaklanov M. Advanced interconnects for ULSI technology / ed. by M.Baklanov, P.S.Ho, E.Zschech. - Chichester: Wiley, 2012. - xxvi, 579 p.: ill. - Incl. bibl. ref. - Ind.: p.565-579. - ISBN 978-0-470-66254-0
 

Оглавление / Contents
 
About the Editors ............................................ xiii
List of Contributors ........................................... xv
Preface ....................................................... xix
Abbreviations ............................................... xxiii

Section I  Low-k Materials ...................................... 1

1  Low-k: Materials: Recent Advances ............................ 3
   Geraud Dubois and Willi Volksen
   1.1  Introduction ............................................ 3
   1.2  Integration Challenges .................................. 5
        1.2.1  Process-Induced Damage ........................... 6
        1.2.2  Mechanical Properties ............................ 9
   1.3  Processing Approaches to Existing Integration Issues ... 10
        1.3.1  Post-deposition Treatments ...................... 11
        1.3.2  Prevention or Repair of Plasma-Induced
               Processing Damage ............................... 14
        1.3.3  Multilayer Structures ........................... 15
   1.4  Material Advances to Overcome Current Limitations ...... 16
        1.4.1  Silica Zeolites ................................. 16
        1.4.2  Hybrid Organic-Inorganic: Oxycarbosilanes ....... 19
   1.5  Conclusion ............................................. 22
   References .................................................. 23

2  Ultra-Low-k by CVD: Deposition and Curing ................... 35
   Vincent Jousseaume, Aziz Zenasni, Olivier Gourhant,
   Laurent Favennec and Mikhail R. Baklanov
   2.1  Introduction ........................................... 35
   2.2  Porogen Approach by PECVD .............................. 37
        2.2.1  Precursors and Deposition Conditions ............ 37
        2.2.2  Mystery Still Unsolved: From Porogens to
               Pores ........................................... 41
   2.3  UV Curing .............................................. 42
        2.3.1  General Overview of Curing ...................... 42
        2.3.2  UV Curing Mechanisms ............................ 43
   2.4  Impact of Curing on Structure and Physical
        Properties: Benefits of UV Curing ...................... 49
        2.4.1  Porosity ........................................ 49
        2.4.2  Chemical Structure and Mechanical Properties .... 50
        2.4.3  Electrical Properties ........................... 56
   2.5  Limit/Issues with the Porogen Approach ................. 57
        2.5.1  Porosity Creation Limit ......................... 58
        2.5.2  Porogen Residues ................................ 59
   2.6  Future of CVD Low-k .................................... 62
        2.6.1  New Matrix Precursor ............................ 62
        2.6.2  Other Deposition Strategies ..................... 64
        2.6.3  New Deposition Techniques ....................... 66
   2.7  Material Engineering: Adaptation to Integration
        Schemes ................................................ 68
   2.8  Conclusion ............................................. 70
   References .................................................. 71

3  Plasma Processing of Low-fc Dielectrics ..................... 79
   Hualiang Shi, Denis Shamiryan, Jean-François de Marneffe,
   Huai Huang, Paul S. Ho and Mikhail R. Baklanov
   3.1  Introduction ........................................... 79
   3.2  Materials and Equipment ................................ 80
   3.3  Process Results Characterization ....................... 82
   3.4  Interaction of Low-k Dielectrics with Plasma ........... 85
        3.4.1  Low-k Etch Chemistries .......................... 85
        3.4.2  Patterning Strategies and Masking Materials ..... 87
        3.4.3  Etch Mechanisms ................................. 88
   3.5  Mechanisms of Plasma Damage ............................ 92
        3.5.1  Gap Structure Studies ........................... 93
        3.5.2  Effect of Radical Density ....................... 95
        3.5.3  Effect of Ion Energy ............................ 96
        3.5.4  Effect of Photon Energy and Intensity ........... 99
        3.5.5  Plasma Damage by Oxidative Radicals ............ 103
        3.5.6  Hydrogen-Based Plasma .......................... 105
        3.5.7  Minimization of Plasma Damage .................. 108
   3.6  Dielectric Recovery ................................... 112
        3.6.1  CH4 Beam Treatment ............................. 112
        3.6.2  Dielectric Recovery by Silylation .............. 113
        3.6.3  UV Radiation ................................... 119
   3.7  Conclusions ........................................... 121
   References ................................................. 122

4  Wet Clean Applications in Porous Low-A Patterning
   Processes .................................................. 129
   Quoc Toan Le, Guy Vereecke, Herbert Struyf, Els Kesters
   and Mikhail R. Baklanov
   4.1  Introduction .......................................... 129
   4.2  Silica and Porous Hybrid Dielectric Materials ......... 130
   4.3  Impact of Plasma and Subsequent Wet Clean Processes
        on the Stability of Porous Low-k Dielectrics .......... 134
        4.3.1  Stability in Pure Chemical Solutions ........... 134
        4.3.2  Stability in Commercial Chemistries ............ 135
        4.3.3  Hydrophobicity of Hybrid Low-k: Materials ...... 138
   4.4  Removal of Post-Etch Residues and Copper Surface
        Cleaning .............................................. 141
   4.5  Plasma Modification and Removal of Post-Etch 193 nm
        Photoresist ........................................... 146
        4.5.1  Modification of 193 nm Photoresist by Plasma
               Etch ........................................... 146
        4.5.2  Wet Removal of 193 nm Photoresist .............. 153
   Acknowledgments ............................................ 166
   References ................................................. 166

Section II  Conductive Layers and Barriers .................... 173

5  Copper Electroplating for On-Chip Metallization ............ 175
   Valery M. Dubin
   5.1  Introduction .......................................... 175
   5.2  Copper Electroplating Techniques ...................... 176
   5.3  Copper Electroplating Superfill ....................... 177
        5.3.1  The Role of Accelerator ........................ 177
        5.3.2  The Role of Suppressor ......................... 178
        5.3.3  The Role of Leveler ............................ 180
   5.4  Alternative Cu Plating Methods ........................ 182
        5.4.1  Electroless Plating ............................ 182
        5.4.2  Direct Plating ................................. 182
   5.5  Electroplated Cu Properties ........................... 184
        5.5.1  Resistivity .................................... 184
        5.5.2  Impurities ..................................... 184
        5.5.3  Electromigration ............................... 185
   5.6  Conclusions ........................................... 186
   References ................................................. 187

6  Diffusion Barriers ......................................... 193
   Michael Hecker and René Hübner
   6.1  Introduction .......................................... 193
        6.1.1  Cu Metallization, Barrier Requirements and
               Materials ...................................... 193
        6.1.2  Barrier Deposition Techniques .................. 195
        6.1.3  Characterization of Barrier Performance ........ 196
   6.2  Metal-Based Barriers as Liners for Cu Seed
        Deposition ............................................ 198
        6.2.1  Ta-Based Barriers .............................. 198
        6.2.2  W-Based Barriers ............................... 209
        6.2.3  Ti-Based Barriers .............................. 210
        6.2.4  Further Systems ................................ 211
   6.3  Advanced Barrier Approaches ........................... 212
        6.3.1  Barriers for Direct Cu Plating ................. 212
        6.3.2  Metal Capping Layers ........................... 214
        6.3.3  Self-Forming Diffusion Barriers ................ 216
        6.3.4  Self-Assembled Molecular Nanolayers and
               Polymer-Based Barriers ......................... 218
   6.4  Conclusions ........................................... 221
   References ................................................. 221

Section III Integration and Reliability ....................... 235

7  Process Integration of Interconnects ....................... 237
   Sridhar Balakrishnan, Ruth Brain and Larry Zhao
   7.1  Introduction .......................................... 237
   7.2  On-Die Interconnects in the Submicrometer Era ......... 237
   7.3  On-Die Interconnects at Sub-100nm Nodes ............... 240
   7.4  Integration of Low-k: Dielectrics in Sub-65 nm
        Nodes ................................................. 241
        7.4.1  Degradation of Dielectric Constant during
               Integration .................................... 243
        7.4.2  Integration Issues in ELK Dielectrics Due to
               Degraded Mechanical Properties ................. 246
   7.5  Patterning Integration at Sub-65 nm Nodes ............. 248
        7.5.1  Patterning Challenges .......................... 249
   7.6  Integration of Conductors in Sub-65 nm Nodes .......... 252
        7.6.1  Narrow Line Copper Resistivity ................. 253
        7.6.2  Integrating Novel Barrier/Liner Materials and
               Deposition Techniques for Cu Interconnects ..... 254
        7.6.3  Self-Forming Barriers and Their Integration .... 256
        7.6.4  Integration to Enable Reliable Copper
               Interconnects .................................. 257
   7.7  Novel Air-Gap Interconnects ........................... 258
        7.7.1  Unlanded Via Integration with Air-Gap
               Interconnects .................................. 258
        7.7.2  Air-Gap Formation Using Nonconformal
               Dielectric Deposition .......................... 259
        7.7.3  Air-Gap Formation Using a Sacrificial
               Material ....................................... 260
   References ................................................. 261

8  Chemical Mechanical Planarization for Cu-Low-k
   Integration ................................................ 267
   Gautam Banerjee
   8.1  Introduction .......................................... 267
   8.2  Back to Basics ........................................ 268
   8.3  Mechanism of the CMP Process .......................... 268
   8.4  CMP Consumables ....................................... 271
        8.4.1  Slurry ......................................... 271
        8.4.2  Pad ............................................ 273
        8.4.3  Pad Conditioner ................................ 274
   8.5  CMP Interactions ...................................... 276
   8.6  Post-CMP Cleaning ..................................... 281
        8.6.1  Other Defects .................................. 286
        8.6.2  Surface Finish ................................. 286
        8.6.3  E-Test ......................................... 287
   8.7  Future Direction ...................................... 287
   References ................................................. 288

9  Scaling and Microstructure Effects on Electromigration
   Reliability for Cu Interconnects ........................... 291
   Chao-Kun Hu, René Hübner, Lijuan Zhang, Meike Hauschildt
   and Paul S. Ho
   9.1  Introduction .......................................... 291
   9.2  Electromigration Fundamentals ......................... 293
        9.2.1  EM Mass Flow ................................... 293
        9.2.2  EM Lifetime and Scaling Rule ................... 294
        9.2.3  Statistical Test Method ........................ 296
        9.2.4  Effect of Current Density on EM Lifetime ....... 297
   9.3  Cu Microstructure ..................................... 299
        9.3.1  X-ray Diffraction (XRD) ........................ 299
        9.3.2  Electron Backscatter Diffraction in the
               Scanning Electron Microscope ................... 301
        9.3.3  Orientation Imaging Microscopy in the
               Transmission Electron Microscope ............... 304
   9.4  Lifetime Enhancement .................................. 306
        9.4.1  Effect of а Та Liner ........................... 306
        9.4.2  Upper-Level Dummy Vias ......................... 308
        9.4.3  Plasma Pre-clean and SiH4 Soak ................. 310
        9.4.4  CVD and ECDCu and the Effect of Nonmetallic
               Impurities ..................................... 311
        9.4.5  Cu Alloys ...................................... 314
        9.4.6  CoWP Cap Near-Bamboo and Polycrystalline Cu
               Lines .......................................... 319
   9.5  Effect of Grain Size on EM Lifetime and Statistics .... 321
   9.6  Massive-Scale Statistical Study of EM ................. 326
   9.7  Summary ............................................... 329
   Acknowledgments ............................................ 331
   References ................................................. 331

10 Mechanical Reliability of Low-A Dielectrics ................ 339
   Kris Vanstreels, Han Li and Joost J. Vlassak
   10.1 Introduction .......................................... 339
   10.2 Mechanical Properties of Porous Low-A Materials ....... 340
        10.2.1 Techniques to Measure Mechanical Properties
               of Thin Films .................................. 340
        10.2.2 Effect of Porosity on the Stiffness of
               Organosilicate Glass Films ..................... 342
        10.2.3 Hybrid Dielectrics Containing Organic/
               Inorganic Bridging Units ....................... 344
        10.2.4 Effect of UV Wavelength and Porogen Content
               on the Hardening Process of PECVD Low-A
               Dielectrics .................................... 349
   10.3 Fracture Properties of Porous Low-A Materials ......... 352
        10.3.1 Adhesion Measurement Methods ................... 352
        10.3.2 Fracture Toughness Measurement Techniques ...... 354
        10.3.3 Effect of Porosity and Network Structure on
               the Fracture Toughness of Organosilicate
               Glass Films .................................... 355
        10.3.4 Effects of UV Cure on Fracture Properties
               of Carbon-Doped Oxides ......................... 357
        10.3.5 Water Diffusion and Fracture Properties of
               Organosilicate Glass Films ..................... 359
   10.4 Conclusion ............................................ 361
   References ................................................. 362

11 Electrical Breakdown in Advanced Interconnect
   Dielectrics ................................................ 369
   Ennis T. Ogawa and Oliver Aubel
   11.1 Introduction .......................................... 369
        11.1.1 Dual-Damascene Integration of Low-k
               Dielectrics .................................... 370
        11.1.2 Low-k Types and Integrating Low-k
               Dielectrics .................................... 373
   11.2 Reliability Testing ................................... 378
        11.2.1 Measurement of Dielectric Degradation .......... 378
        11.2.2 Reliability Analysis ........................... 390
   11.3 Lifetime Extrapolation and Models ..................... 397
   11.4 Future Trends and Concerns ............................ 403
   Acknowledgments ............................................ 405
   References ................................................. 405

Section IV New Approaches ..................................... 435

12 3D Interconnect Technology ................................. 437
   John U. Knickerbocker, Lay Wai Kong, Sven Niese, Alain
   Diebold and Ehrenfried Zschech
   12.1 Introduction .......................................... 437
   12.2 Dimensional Interconnected Circuits (3DICs) for
        System Applications ................................... 438
        John U. Knickerbocker
        12.2.1 Introduction ................................... 438
        12.2.2 System Needs ................................... 441
        12.2.3 3D Interconnect Design and Architecture ........ 444
        12.2.4 3D Fabrication and Interconnect Technology ..... 446
        12.2.5 Trade-offs in Application Design and Product
               Applications ................................... 464
        12.2.6 Summary ........................................ 466
   Acknowledgments ............................................ 467
   12.3 Advanced Microscopy Techniques for 3D Interconnect
        Characterization ...................................... 467
        Lay Wai Kong, Sven Niese, Alain Diebold and
        Ehrenfried Zschech
        12.3.1 Scanning Acoustic Microscopy ................... 467
        12.3.2 IR Microscopy .................................. 473
        12.3.3 Transmission X-ray Microscopy and Tomography ... 474
        12.3.4 Microstructure Analysis ........................ 480
   12.4 Summary ............................................... 486
   References ................................................. 486

13 Carbon Nanotubes for Interconnects ......................... 491
   Mizuhisa Nihei, Motonobu Sato, Akio Kawabata, Shintaro
   Sato and Yuji Awano
   13.1 Introduction .......................................... 491
   13.2 Advantage of CNT Vias ................................. 492
   13.3 Fabrication Processes of CNT Vias ..................... 493
   13.4 Electrical Properties of CNT Vias ..................... 496
   13.5 Current Reliability of CNT Vias ....................... 498
   13.6 Conclusion ............................................ 501
   Acknowledgments ............................................ 501
   References ................................................. 501

14 Optical Interconnects ...................................... 503
   Wim Bogaerts
   14.1 Introduction .......................................... 503
   14.2 Optical Links ......................................... 505
        14.2.1 Waveguides ..................................... 507
        14.2.2 Waveguide Filters and (De)multiplexers ......... 510
        14.2.3 Transmitter: Light Source ...................... 513
        14.2.4 Transmitter: Modulators ........................ 514
        14.2.5 Receiver: Photodetector ........................ 517
        14.2.6 Power Consumption and Heat Dissipation ......... 517
        14.2.7 Different Materials ............................ 518
        14.2.8 Conclusion ..................................... 519
   14.3 The Case for Silicon Photonics ........................ 519
        14.3.1  Waveguides and WDM Components ................. 519
        14.3.2 Modulators, Tuners and Switches ................ 523
        14.3.3 Photodetectors ................................. 526
        14.3.4 Light Sources .................................. 526
        14.3.5 Conclusion ..................................... 527
   14.4 Optical Networks on a Chip ............................ 528
        14.4.1 WDM Point-to-Point Links ....................... 529
        14.4.2 Bus Architecture ............................... 529
        14.4.3 (Reconfigurable) Networks ...................... 530
   14.5 Integration Strategies ................................ 532
        14.5.1 Front-End-of-Line Integration .................. 533
        14.5.2 Backside Integration ........................... 535
        14.5.3 Back-End-of-Line Integration ................... 535
        14.5.4 3D Integration ................................. 536
        14.5.5 Flip-Chip Integration .......................... 537
        14.5.6 Conclusion ..................................... 537
   14.6 Conclusion ............................................ 538
   References ................................................. 538

15 Wireless Interchip Interconnects
   Takamaro Kikkawa ........................................... 543
   15.1  Introduction ......................................... 547
   15.2  Wireless Interconnect Technologies ................... 547
         15.2.1 Figure of Merit for Wireless Interconnects .... 549
         15.2.2 Capacitively Coupled Wireless Interconnects ... 550
         15.2.3 Inductively Coupled Wireless Interconnects .... 553
         15.2.4 Antennas and Propagation Conclusion ........... 561
   15.3 References ............................................ 561

Index ......................................................... 565


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