List of illustrations ...................................... XVI
List of abbreviations ..................................... XXII
Preface ................................................... XXIX
A cknowledgements ....................................... XXXIII
PART I
Introduction .................................................... 1
1 Introduction: spatial planning, climate change and
sustainable development ...................................... 3
1.1 Introduction ............................................ 3
1.2 Urgency of response to climate change ................... 3
1.2.1 Observed changes ................................. 3
1.2.2 Essentials of the science of climate change ...... 5
1.2.3 Rate of change ................................... 6
1.2.4 Dangerous climate change ......................... 7
1.3 Role of Spatial Planning ................................ 9
1.3.1 Identifying the role of spatial planning ......... 9
1.3.2 Scope of spatial planning ....................... 10
1.3.3 The state and planning for the future ........... 12
1.3.4 Planning and scale .............................. 13
1.3.5 Planning, implementation and management ......... 14
1.4 Implications for sustainable development ............... 15
1.5 Conclusions ............................................ 17
2 Climate change mitigation and adaptation: impacts and
opportunities ............................................... 18
2.1 Introduction and definitions ........................... 18
2.1.1 Impacts of climate and climate change ........... 18
2.1.2 Definitions ..................................... 19
2.1.3 Sources of emissions ............................ 19
2.2 Impacts and opportunities of climate change ............ 23
2.2.1 Identifying impacts ............................. 23
2.2.2 Opportunities arising from climate change ....... 25
2.3 The case for mitigation and adaptation ................. 27
2.3.1 Climate change mitigation and adaptation
responses ....................................... 27
2.3.2 Mitigation and adaptation: interrelationships
and interactions ................................ 28
2.4 The role of spatial planning in the synergy between
mitigation and adaptation .............................. 30
2.4.1 Introduction .................................... 30
2.4.2 Explanations for lack of integration of
mitigation and adaptation ....................... 31
2.4.3 Expectations of integration through spatial
planning ........................................ 32
2.5 Integrating mitigation and adaptation (approaches and
tools for spatial planning) ............................ 36
2.5.1 Risk assessment ................................. 36
2.5.2 Ecosystems approach and ecosystem services
approach ........................................ 42
2.6 Conclusions: mitigation and adaptation working
together ............................................... 43
3 International, European and national policy frameworks ...... 44
3.1 Introduction ........................................... 44
3.2 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change ................................................. 45
3.2.1 Introduction .................................... 45
3.2.2 Kyoto Protocol .................................. 48
3.2.3 Kyoto mechanisms ................................ 49
3.2.4 International funding for climate change
responses ....................................... 50
3.2.5 Requirements for action and reporting ........... 51
3.3 European climate change action ......................... 52
3.3.1 ECCP I (Mitigation) ............................. 52
3.3.2 ECCP II (Adaptation) ............................ 52
3.3.3 EU White Paper on adaptation to climate
change .......................................... 53
3.3.4 EU and member state competences ................. 56
3.4 National policy frameworks ............................. 58
3.4.1 UK climate change strategies .................... 58
3.4.2 UK climate change-related legislation ........... 58
3.4.3 UK Carbon Reduction Commitment and Low Carbon
Transition Plan ................................. 60
3.4.4 UK national, regional and local planning
policy frameworks ............................... 62
3.4.5 National climate change policy frameworks
elsewhere ....................................... 64
3.5 Policy options for implementation ...................... 66
3.6 Conclusions ............................................ 68
PART II
Perspectives on spatial planning and climate change ............ 69
4 Discourses of climate change and spatial planning ........... 71
4.1 Introduction ........................................... 71
4.2 Discourse analysis ..................................... 71
4.3 The United Kingdom ..................................... 73
4.3.1 The planning response to climate change ......... 73
4.3.2 Reluctant prescriptions ......................... 77
4.3.3 Discourse coalitions and networks ............... 77
4.3.4 The eco-towns initiative ........................ 83
4.3.5 Planning: fit for purpose? ...................... 84
4.4 The Netherlands ........................................ 87
4.4.1 Experience and innovation: national water
planning ........................................ 87
4.4.2 The Climate changes Spatial Planning
initiative ...................................... 88
4.4.3 NEPP tradition .................................. 90
4.5 Conclusions ............................................ 91
5 Multi-scalar spatial planning for climate change ............ 93
5.1 Introduction ........................................... 93
5.2 Multi-level governance and appeals to the global
scale .................................................. 94
5.3 Mitigation and adaptation: global and local? ........... 95
5.4 Multi-scale governance networks ....................... 100
5.5 Implications for spatial planning ..................... 101
5.5.1 Appeals to the climate change issue as a case
for supranational planning ..................... 102
5.5.2 Appeals to the climate change issue as a case
for national planning .......................... 103
5.5.3 Appeals to the climate change issue as a case
for regional planning .......................... 116
5.5.4 Appeals to the climate change issue as a case
for local planning ............................. 118
5.6 Conclusions ........................................... 119
6 Just transitions: horizons, timescales and equity .......... 120
6.1 Introduction .......................................... 120
6.2 Futures thinking in spatial planning .................. 121
6.3 Sustainable development and planning for future
generations ........................................... 122
6.4 Planning, climate change and the future ............... 123
6.5 Climate change and intra-generational equity .......... 124
6.5.1 Climate change and social justice .............. 125
6.5.2 Equity in flood risk and coastal erosion
management ..................................... 127
6.5.3 Social justice for current and future
generations .................................... 129
6.6 Futures thinking: socio-economic and climate change
scenarios ............................................. 129
6.6.1 Socio-economic scenarios: opportunities and
barriers ....................................... 130
6.6.2 Application of scenarios in spatial planning
in the UK ...................................... 137
6.7 Socio-economic scenarios in the Netherlands ........... 138
6.8 Other tools for futures thinking in spatial
planning .............................................. 140
6.9 Conclusions ........................................... 141
7 Environmental impact assessment for climate change in
spatial planning ........................................... 142
7.1 Introduction .......................................... 142
7.2 Environmental impact assessment processes ............. 143
7.3 Environmental impact assessment and climate change .... 144
7.3.1 Factors external to EIA ........................ 145
7.3.2 Factors internal to EIA ........................ 146
7.4 Specific guidance on climate change within EIA ........ 149
7.5 Integrating mitigation and adaptation in EIA .......... 154
7.6 Case studies: SEA and climate change .................. 155
7.6.1 Case study 1: Randstad 2040 .................... 155
7.6.2 Case study 2: UK offshore energy SEA ........... 156
7.6.3 Case study 3: SEA of Thames Estuary 2100 ....... 162
7.6.4 Strengths and weaknesses in SEA case studies ... 164
7.7 Risk assessment and uncertainty in EIA ................ 165
7.8 New regulatory requirements for addressing climate
change in EIA ......................................... 167
7.9 Conclusions ........................................... 167
PART III
Spatial planning in practice .................................. 169
8 Strategic planning for low-carbon and resilient
development patterns ....................................... 171
8.1 Introduction .......................................... 171
8.2 Patterns of development ............................... 172
8.2.1 Trends in location of development in Europe .... 172
8.2.2 Location of development and transport energy
use ............................................ 173
8.2.3 Transport and greenhouse gas emissions ......... 176
8.2.4 EU regional policies for climate change
mitigation ..................................... 177
8.3 Strategic planning, transport and climate change
mitigation in the UK .................................. 178
8.3.1 Transport and greenhouse gas emissions:
trends and targets ............................. 178
8.3.2 National and regional policies for strategic
location of development and transport .......... 180
8.3.3 Spatial planning policies for transport
demand management and travel behaviour ......... 185
8.3.4 National and regional targets for low carbon
transport ...................................... 187
8.4 Strategic planning and climate change adaptation in
the UK ................................................ 189
8.4.1 National adaptation planning ................... 189
8.4.2 Adaptation in regional planning ................ 190
8.5 Climate change mitigation and adaptation at the
regional level: the Yorkshire and Humber Plan ......... 192
8.5.1 Context and process of plan preparation and
sustainability appraisal ....................... 193
8.5.2 Climate change policies in the Plan ............ 194
8.5.3 Mitigation objectives: location and transport
elements ....................................... 194
8.5.4 Adaptation objectives .......................... 196
8.5.5 Prospects from 2010 onwards .................... 197
8.6 Eco-towns ............................................. 198
8.6.1 Objectives and Prospectus ...................... 198
8.6.2 Eco-town outcomes .............................. 200
8.7 Learning from Europe .................................. 201
8.7.1 The Netherlands: context ....................... 202
8.7.2 The Netherlands: urban developments ............ 203
8.8 Conclusions ........................................... 204
9 Climate change and the built environment ................... 206
9.1 Introduction .......................................... 206
9.2 The built environment and infrastructure:
definitions ........................................... 206
9.3 Reducing emissions from the built environment ......... 207
9.3.1 Introduction ................................... 207
9.3.2 The EU context: energy use and emissions
reduction ...................................... 208
9.4 Reducing emissions from the built environment:
the UK ................................................ 211
9.4.1 Introduction .................................... 211
9.4.2 National spatial planning context: new and
existing built environment ..................... 213
9.4.3 Existing urban areas: the historic
environment .................................... 216
9.4.4 Local energy planning: reduction in energy
demand, and renewables ......................... 217
9.4.5 Local energy planning: community energy ........ 219
9.4.6 Local energy planning: new build ............... 221
9.4.7 Local energy planning: eco-towns ............... 222
9.4.8 Spatial planning and energy planning: future
prospects ...................................... 223
9.5 Reducing emissions from the built environment: the
Netherlands ........................................... 225
9.5.1 National spatial planning context .............. 225
9.5.2 Municipal spatial planning responses ........... 226
9.6 Climate change adaptation in the built environment .... 228
9.6.1 Introduction ................................... 228
9.6.2 EU policy ...................................... 229
9.7 Climate change adaptation in the built environment:
the UK ................................................ 229
9.7.1 Impacts on infrastructure: a case for
national planning? ............................. 229
9.7.2 Regional and local spatial planning policies
and practice for adaptation .................... 232
9.7.3 Regional to local scale: implementing
climate-resilience in South East England ....... 233
9.7.4 Metropolitan scale: implementing climate
change adaptation in London .................... 236
9.7.5 Urban neighbourhood scale: Bilston Urban
Village, West Midlands ......................... 241
9.8 Climate change adaptation in the built environment:
The Netherlands ....................................... 243
9.8.1 National adaptation planning: the Delta Plan ... 243
9.8.2 National spatial planning response ............. 243
9.8.3 Regional and municipal spatial planning
response ....................................... 245
9.9 Bringing adaptation and mitigation together: green
infrastructure ........................................ 247
9.9.1 Bene fits of green and blue infrastructure ..... 247
9.9.2 Policy context ................................. 247
9.9.3 Regional and local practice .................... 248
9.10 Conclusions: spatial planning for mitigation and
adaptation ............................................ 252
10 Planning for water resources under climate change .......... 253
10.1 Introduction .......................................... 253
10.2 Water resources: use and climate change impacts ....... 255
10.2.1 Abstraction and use ............................ 255
10.2.2 Climate change impacts on water resources ...... 257
10.3 Integrating planning for land and water: water
resources ............................................. 259
10.3.1 EU Water Framework Directive ................... 259
10.3.2 England/UK: legislation and strategy - water
resources ...................................... 261
10.3.3 Institutions and roles in planning for water
resources and supply ........................... 262
10.3.4 Integrating planning for land and water at
River Basin District level ..................... 265
10.4 Tools for policy integration: water resources ......... 268
10.4.1 Studies of planning for new development and
water .......................................... 268
10.4.2 CAMS and water-stress area mapping ............. 272
10.4.3 Pricing policy ................................. 273
10.4.4 Containing demand, seeking water neutral
development .................................... 274
10.4.5 Scenarios of change and planning for new
resource developments .......................... 277
10.5 Conclusions: water resources .......................... 278
11 Flood risk, and marine and coastal areas: planning for
climate change ............................................. 280
11.1 Introduction .......................................... 280
11.2 Flood risk and climate change ......................... 281
11.2.1 Flooding in the EU and UK ...................... 281
11.2.2 Impacts of climate change upon flood risk ...... 283
11.3 Integrating spatial planning and flood-risk
planning .............................................. 284
11.3.1 EU Floods Directive ............................ 284
11.3.2 UK legislation and planning policy: flood
risk ........................................... 285
11.3.3 Shifting flood-risk policy: UK and
Netherlands .................................... 287
11.4 Tools for integration of flood risk into spatial
planning .............................................. 292
11.4.1 Strategic Flood Risk Assessment (SFRA) ......... 292
11.4.2 Surface Water Management Plans and SUDS ........ 293
11.4.3 Sustainability appraisal ....................... 295
11.4.4 Integrating flood control and other benefits ... 298
11.5 Conclusions: flood risk ............................... 299
11.6 Marine and coastal spatial planning ................... 300
11.6.1 Introduction ................................... 300
11.6.2 Climate change impacts upon coastal and
marine areas ................................... 301
11.6.3 Spatial planning responses in the marine and
coastal zones .................................. 302
11.6.4 Conclusions: marine and coastal planning ....... 313
11.7 Conclusions ........................................... 314
12 Planning for biodiversity under climate change ............. 315
12.1 Introduction .......................................... 315
12.2 Pressures upon biodiversity ........................... 316
12.2.1 Climate change impacts ......................... 316
12.2.2 Other impacts on biodiversity .................. 318
12.3 International biodiversity protection: institutions
and status ............................................ 319
12.3.1 The Convention on Biological Diversity and
global status assessment ....................... 319
12.3.2 The European level: biodiversity
institutions, policy framework and status ...... 321
12.4 National level: UK biodiversity institutions and
policy framework ...................................... 324
12.4.1 Biodiversity planning and status ............... 324
12.5 Spatial planning links to biodiversity ................ 327
12.5.1 England and Wales - spatial planning policy
affecting biodiversity ......................... 327
12.5.2 Biodiversity at regional and local planning
policy levels .................................. 329
12.6 Concepts and principles for future biodiversity
protection ............................................ 332
12.6.1 Retention of existing designated sites,
development of new sites ....................... 333
12.6.2 Climate space and connectivity ................. 334
12.6.3 The ecosystem approach: integration with
other sectors .................................. 336
12.6.4 Sustainability appraisal and biodiversity ...... 339
12.6.5 Other guidance on biodiversity and climate
change ......................................... 340
12.7 Spatial planning, biodiversity and climate change:
barriers and constraints .............................. 342
12.8 Conclusions - implications for biodiversity policy:
conservation and enhancement .......................... 346
PART IV
Prospects ..................................................... 349
13 Climate change learning, knowledge and communication
amongst spatial planning communities ....................... 351
13.1 Introduction .......................................... 351
13.2 Institutional and social learning ..................... 353
13.2.1 Institutional learning ......................... 353
13.2.2 Social learning in adaptation .................. 354
13.2.3 Social learning in planning for sustainable
construction ................................... 355
13.2.4 Social learning in natural resource
management ..................................... 355
13.3 Networks and learning ................................. 357
13.3.1 Networks and coalitions ........................ 357
13.3.2 Cross-national learning ........................ 358
13.3.3 Academic and practitioner networks ............. 359
13.3.4 Professional networks .......................... 360
13.3.5 Guidance and good practice ..................... 361
13.4 Climate change knowledge amongst planning
communities ........................................... 362
13.4.1 Climate change communication and the media ..... 362
13.4.2 Attitudes and behaviour ........................ 363
13.4.3 Political engagement ........................... 364
13.5 Community engagement and visualization ................ 365
13.5.1 The use of analogy ............................. 365
13.5.2 Community and local visualization .............. 366
13.5.3 Capacity building through collaborative local
working ........................................ 368
13.6 Conclusions ........................................... 371
14 Integrating mitigation and adaptation for sustainable
development ................................................ 372
14.1 Introduction .......................................... 372
14.2 Benefits of integration of mitigation and
adaptation ............................................ 373
14.2.1 Maximizing beneficial synergies and
opportunities .................................. 373
14.2.2 Reducing conflict .............................. 374
14.2.3 New and existing development ................... 375
14.3 Methods for integration ............................... 375
14.3.1 Principles and objectives ...................... 375
14.3.2 Critiques of conventional assessment and
appraisal ...................................... 377
14.3.3 Assessment frameworks .......................... 378
14.4 Understanding the development process ................. 383
14.5 Prospects ............................................. 385
Glossary ................................................... 389
Bibliography ............................................... 394
Index ...................................................... 435
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