Part I
Introduction and the Oil Spill Problem
1 Introduction ................................................. 3
Merv Fingas
1.1 Introduction ............................................ 3
1.2 A Word on the Frequency of Spills ....................... 4
2 Spill Occurrences: A World Overview .......................... 7
Dagmar Schmidt-Etkin
2.1 Introduction ............................................ 7
2.2 Executive Summary ....................................... 8
2.3 Overview of Spill Occurrences ........................... 8
2.3.1 Natural Oil Seepage .............................. 8
2.3.2 Historical Concern Over Oil Pollution ........... 11
2.3.3 Sources of Oil Spills and Patterns of
Spillage ........................................ 12
2.3.4 Spillage from Oil Exploration and Production
Activities ...................................... 17
2.3.5 Spills During Oil Transport ..................... 23
2.3.6 Spillage from Oil Refining ...................... 28
2.3.7 Spillage Related to Oil Consumption and Usage ... 32
2.3.8 Oil Inputs from Potentially Polluting Sunken
Shipwrecks ...................................... 39
2.3.9 Summary of Oil Spillage ......................... 41
References .................................................. 46
Part II
Types of Oils and Their Properties
3 Introduction to Oil Chemistry and Properties ................ 51
Merv Fingas
3.1 Introduction ........................................... 51
3.2 The Composition of Oil ................................. 51
3.3 Properties of Oil ...................................... 54
References .................................................. 59
Part III
Oil Analysis and Remote Sensing
4 Measurement of Oil Physical Properties ...................... 63
Bruce Hollebone
4.1 Introduction ........................................... 63
4.2 Bulk Properties of Crude Oil and Fuel Products ......... 63
4.2.1 Density and API Gravity ......................... 66
4.2.2 Dynamic Viscosity ............................... 67
4.2.3 Surface and Interfacial Tensions ................ 67
4.2.4 Flash Point ..................................... 69
4.2.5 Pour Point ...................................... 70
4.2.6 Sulphur Content ................................. 70
4.2.7 Water Content ................................... 70
4.2.8 Evaluation of the Stability of Emulsions
Formed from Brine and Oils and Oil Products ..... 71
4.2.9 Evaluation of the Relative Dispersability of
Oil and Oil Products ............................ 71
4.2.10. Adhesion to Stainless Steel .................. 72
4.3 Hydrocarbon Groups ..................................... 73
4.4 Quality Assurance and Control .......................... 77
4.5 Effects of Evaporative Weathering on Oil Bulk
Properties ............................................. 78
4.5.1 Weathering ...................................... 78
4.5.2 Preparing Evaporated (Weathered) Samples of
Oils ............................................ 79
4.5.3 Quantifying Equation(s) for Predicting
Evaporation ..................................... 81
References .................................................. 83
Appendix 4.1 ................................................ 85
5 Introduction to Oil Chemical Analysis ....................... 87
Merv Fingas
5.1 Introduction ........................................... 87
5.2 Sampling and Laboratory Analysis ....................... 87
5.2.1 Incorrect and Obsolete Methods .................. 88
5.3 Chromatography ......................................... 89
5.3.1 Introduction to Gas Chromatography .............. 89
5.3.2 Methodology ..................................... 93
5.4 Identification and Forensic Analysis ................... 96
5.4.1 Biomarkers ...................................... 99
5.4.2 Sesquiterpenes and Diamondoids ................. 105
5.5 Field Analysis ........................................ 107
References ................................................. 107
6 Oil Spill Remote Sensing: A Review ......................... 111
Merv Fingas and Carl E. Brown
6.1 Introduction .......................................... 111
6.2 Visible Indications of Oil ............................ 112
6.3 Optical Sensors ....................................... 114
6.3.1 Visible ........................................ 114
6.3.2 Infrared ....................................... 120
6.3.3 Ultraviolet .................................... 123
6.4 Laser Fluorosensors ................................... 123
6.5 Microwave Sensors ..................................... 124
6.5.1 Radiometers .................................... 124
6.5.2 Radar .......................................... 125
6.5.3 Microwave Scatterometers ....................... 134
6.5.4 Surface Wave Radars ............................ 135
6.5.5 Interferometric Radar .......................... 135
6.6 Slick Thickness Determination ......................... 135
6.6.1 Visual Thickness Indications ................... 135
6.6.2 Slick Thickness Relationships in Remote
Sensors ........................................ 136
6.6.3 Specific Thickness Sensors ..................... 138
6.7 Acoustic Systems ...................................... 139
6.8 Integrated Airborne Sensor Systems .................... 139
6.9 Satellite Remote Sensing .............................. 140
6.10 Oil Under Ice Detection ............................... 144
6.11 Underwater Detection and Tracking ..................... 145
6.12 Small Remote-Controlled Aircraft ...................... 149
6.13 Real-Time Displays and Printers ....................... 150
6.14 Routine Surveillance .................................. 150
6.15 Future Trends ......................................... 153
6.16 Recommendations ....................................... 154
Acknowledgments ............................................ 158
References ................................................. 158
7 Laser Fluorosensors ........................................ 171
Саrl E. Brown
7.1 Principles of Operation ............................... 171
7.1.1 Active versus Passive Sensors .................. 171
7.1.2 Sensor Features ................................ 171
7.1.3 Pros/Cons ...................................... 174
7.2 Oil Classification .................................... 175
7.2.1 Real-Time Analysis ............................. 175
7.2.2 Sensor Outputs ................................. 176
7.3 Existing Operational Units ............................ 179
7.3.1 Airborne ....................................... 179
7.3.2 Ship-Borne ..................................... 179
7.4 Aircraft Requirements ................................. 180
7.4.1 Power .......................................... 180
7.4.2 Weight ......................................... 181
7.4.3 Operational Altitude ........................... 181
7.5 Cost Estimates ........................................ 182
7.6 Conclusions ........................................... 182
References ................................................. 182
Part IV
Behaviour of Oil in the Environment and Spill Modeling
8 Introduction to Spill Modeling ............................. 187
Merv Fingas
8.1 Introduction .......................................... 187
8.2 An Overview of Weathering ............................. 187
8.2.1 Evaporation .................................... 188
8.2.2 Emulsification ................................. 190
8.2.3 Natural Dispersion ............................. 191
8.2.4 Dissolution .................................... 192
8.2.5 Photo-Oxidation ................................ 192
8.2.6 Sedimentation, Adhesion to Surfaces, and
Oil-Fines Interaction .......................... 192
8.2.7 Biodegradation ................................. 193
8.2.8 Sinking and Overwashing ........................ 194
8.2.9 Formation of TarbalIs .......................... 195
8.3 Movement of Oil and Oil Spill Modeling ................ 196
8.3.1 Spreading ...................................... 196
8.3.2 Movement of Oil Slicks ......................... 197
8.3.3 Spill Modeling ................................. 198
References ............................................ 199
9 Evaporation Modeling ....................................... 201
Merv Fingas
9.1 Introduction .......................................... 201
9.2 Review of Theoretical Concepts ........................ 205
9.3 Development of New Diffusion-Regulated Models ......... 212
9.3.1 Wind Experiments ............................... 212
9.3.2 Evaporation Rate and Area ...................... 215
9.3.3 Study of Mass and Evaporation Rate ............. 215
9.3.4 Study of the Evaporation of Pure
Hydrocarbons-with and Without Wind ............. 216
9.3.5 Other Factors .................................. 217
9.3.6 Temperature Variation and Generic Equations
Using Distillation Data ........................ 217
9.3.7 A Simplified Means of Estimation ............... 227
9.4 Complexities to the Diffusion-Regulated Model ......... 229
9.4.1 Thickness of the Oil ........................... 229
9.4.2 The Bottle Effect .............................. 229
9.4.3 Skinning ....................................... 230
9.4.4 Rises from the 0-Wind Values ................... 233
9.5 Use of Evaporation Equations in Spill Models .......... 233
9.6 Comparison of Model Approaches ........................ 235
9.7 Summary ............................................... 240
References ................................................. 241
10 Models for Water-in-Oil Emulsion Formation ................. 243
Merv Fingas
10.1 Introduction .......................................... 243
10.2 Early Modeling of Emulsification ...................... 249
10.3 First Two Model Developments .......................... 251
10.4 New Model Development ................................. 253
10.5 Development of an Emulsion Kinetics Estimator ......... 260
10.6 Discussion ............................................ 260
10.7 Conclusions ........................................... 269
References ................................................. 270
11 Oil Spill Trajectory Forecasting Uncertainty and
Emergency Response ......................................... 275
Debra Simecek-Beatty
11.1 Introduction: The Importance of Forecast
Uncertainty ........................................... 275
11.2 The Basics of Oil Spill Modeling ...................... 276
11.3 Trajectory Model Uncertainties ........................ 280
11.3.1 Release Details ................................ 281
11.3.2 Wind ........................................... 282
11.3.3 Current ........................................ 284
11.3.4 Turbulent Diffusion ............................ 287
11.3.5 Oil Weathering ................................. 288
11.3.6 Ensemble Forecasting ........................... 289
11.3.7 Communicating Trajectory Forecast
Uncertainty .................................... 291
11.4 Trajectory Forecast Verification ...................... 292
11.4.1 Diagnostic Verification ........................ 294
11.5 Summary and Conclusions ............................... 295
Acknowledgments ............................................ 297
References ................................................. 297
Part V
Physical Spill Countermeasures on Water
12 Physical Spill Countermeasures ............................. 303
Merv Fingas
12.1 Containment on Water .................................. 303
12.1.1 Types of Booms and Their Construction .......... 303
12.1.2 Uses of Booms .................................. 306
12.1.3 Boom Failures .................................. 309
12.1.4 Ancillary Equipment ............................ 313
12.1.5 Sorbent Booms and Barriers ..................... 314
12.1.6 Special-Purpose Booms .......................... 314
12.2 Skimmers .............................................. 315
12.2.1 Oleophilic Surface Skimmers .................... 316
12.2.2 Weir Skimmers .................................. 320
12.2.3 Suction or Vacuum Skimmers ..................... 321
12.2.4 Elevating Skimmers ............................. 322
12.2.5 Submersion Skimmers ............................ 323
12.2.6 Skimmer Performance ............................ 323
12.2.7 Special-Purpose Ships .......................... 325
12.3 Sorbents .............................................. 325
12.4 Manual Recovery ....................................... 329
12.5 Temporary Storage ..................................... 330
12.6 Pumps ................................................. 332
12.6.1 Performance of Pumps ........................... 334
12.7 Separation ............................................ 334
12.8 Disposal .............................................. 335
Acknowledgments ............................................ 337
References ................................................. 337
13 Weather Effects on Oil Spill Countermeasures ............... 339
Merv Fingas
13.1 Introduction .......................................... 339
13.1.1 Spreading Compared to Weathering ............... 340
13.1.2 Important Components of Weather ................ 340
13.1.3 Oil Properties Regardless of Weathering ........ 343
13.2 Review of Literature on Spill Countermeasures and
Weather ............................................... 343
13.2.1 A Priori Decision Guides ....................... 343
13.2.2 General Countermeasures ........................ 345
13.2.3 Booms .......................................... 345
13.2.4 Skimmers ....................................... 353
13.2.5 Dispersants .................................... 372
13.2.6 In-Situ Burning ................................ 378
13.2.7 Others ......................................... 381
13.2.8 Ice Conditions ................................. 381
13.3 Development of Models for Effectiveness of
Countermeasures ....................................... 383
13.3.1 Overall ........................................ 383
13.3.2 Booms .......................................... 383
13.3.3 Skimmers ....................................... 383
13.3.4 Dispersants .................................... 398
13.3.5 In-Situ Burning ................................ 403
13.3.6 Others ......................................... 404
13.4 Overview of Weather Limitations ....................... 405
13.5 Summary and Conclusions ............................... 407
Acknowledgments ............................................ 416
References ................................................. 416
Part VI
Treating Agents
14 Spill-Treating Agents ...................................... 429
Merv Fingas
14.1 Introduction .......................................... 429
14.2 Dispersants ........................................... 429
14.3 Surface-Washing Agents ................................ 430
14.4 Emulsion Breakers and Inhibitors ...................... 430
14.5 Recovery Enhancers .................................... 431
14.6 Solidifiers ........................................... 431
14.7 Sinking Agents ........................................ 431
14.8 Biodegradation Agents ................................. 432
15 Oil Spill Dispersants: A Technical Summary ................. 435
Merv Fingas
15.1 Introduction .......................................... 435
15.1.1. What Are Dispersants? ........................ 437
15.2 The Basic Physics and Chemistry of Dispersants ........ 437
15.2.1 Formulations ................................... 437
15.2.2 Nature of Surfactant Interaction with Oil ...... 438
15.3 The Basic Nature of Dispersions or Oil-in-Water
Emulsions ............................................. 440
15.3.1 Forces of Destabilization ...................... 441
15.3.2 The Science of Stabilization ................... 443
15.3.3 Oil Spill Dispersions .......................... 447
15.3.4 Significance of Emulsion Stability ............. 449
15.4 Effectiveness ......................................... 451
15.4.1 Introduction to Effectiveness .................. 452
15.4.2 Field Trials ................................... 454
15.4.3 Laboratory Tests ............................... 464
15.4.4 Tank Tests ..................................... 467
15.4.5 Analytical Means ............................... 480
15.5 Monitoring ............................................ 481
15.5.1 Introduction to Monitoring ..................... 481
15.5.2 Review of SMART Protocol ....................... 482
15.5.3 The SERVS Protocol ............................. 483
15.5.4 Review of Other Protocols ...................... 486
15.5.5 Review of Goodman Analysis of SMART ............ 487
15.5.6 Considerations for Monitoring in the Field ..... 488
15.5.7 Visual Surveillance ............................ 492
15.5.8 Remote Sensing ................................. 493
15.5.9 Tracking of Oil on Surface ..................... 494
15.5.10 Tracking of Oil Underwater .................... 494
15.5.11 Mass Balance .................................. 494
15.5.12 Use of Undispersed Slick(s) as a Control ...... 495
15.5.13 Background Levels of Hydrocarbons ............. 495
15.5.14 Using and Computing Values .................... 496
15.5.15 Recommended Procedures for Monitoring
Dispersant Applications ....................... 496
15.6 Physical Studies ...................................... 500
15.6.1 Energy ......................................... 500
15.6.2 Composition of Oil ............................. 506
15.6.3 Amount of Dispersant ........................... 512
15.6.4 Temperature .................................... 512
15.6.5 Salinity ....................................... 513
15.6.6 Particle or Droplet Size ....................... 519
15.7 Toxicity .............................................. 519
15.7.1 Toxicity of Dispersants ........................ 532
15.7.2 Photoenhanced Toxicity ......................... 533
15.7.3 Testing Protocols .............................. 534
15.8 Biodegradation ........................................ 535
15.9 Other Information ..................................... 539
15.9.1 Component Separation ........................... 539
15.9.2 Dispersant Use ................................. 539
15.9.3 Application of Dispersants ..................... 551
15.9.4 Assessment of the Use of Dispersants ........... 553
15.9.5 Spills-of-Opportunity Research ................. 555
15.9.6 Interaction with Sediment Particles ............ 555
15.9.7 Modeling Oil and Dispersed Oil Behavior and
Fate ........................................... 556
15.9.8 Separation of Dispersants from Water ........... 557
15.9.9 Dispersant Breakthrough Oil Slicks ............. 557
15.9.10 Overall Effects of Weather on Dispersion ...... 557
15.9.11 Joint Effect of Temperature and Salinity on
Effectiveness ................................. 558
15.9.12 Dispersibility of Biodiesels .................. 559
15.9.13 Application Systems ........................... 560
15.9.14 Accelerated Weathering ........................ 560
15.10 Summary and Conclusions .............................. 562
15.10.1 Effectiveness Testing Overall ................. 563
15.10.2 Laboratory Effectiveness Tests ................ 563
15.10.3 Tank Testing .................................. 564
15.10.4 Analytical Methods for Effectiveness .......... 564
15.10.5 Toxicity of Dispersed Oil and Dispersants ..... 564
15.10.6 Biodegradation of Oil Treated by
Dispersants ................................... 565
15.10.7 Spill-of-Opportunity Research ................. 565
15.10.8 Monitoring Dispersant Applications ............ 565
15.10.9 Dispersant Use in Recent Times ................ 566
15.10.10 Interaction with Sediment Particles .......... 566
15.10.11 Stability of Dispersions and Resurfacing
with Time .................................... 566
15.10.12 Fate of Dispersed Oil ........................ 566
15.10.13 Application Technology and Issues ............ 566
15.10.14 Correlation of Oil Properties with
Effectiveness ................................ 566
Acknowledgments ....................................... 566
References ............................................ 567
16 A Practical Guide to Chemical Dispersion for Oil Spills .... 583
Merv Fingas
16.1 Introduction and Decision Making ...................... 583
16.1.1 An Overview—How, When, and Where Dispersants
Are Used ....................................... 584
16.1.2 Net Environmental Benefit Analysis ............. 587
16.1.3 Scenarios For Which Dispersants Might Be
Used ........................................... 589
16.1.4 Planning Process and Checklists ................ 589
16.2 How Dispersants Are Used .............................. 591
16.2.1 Dispersion Spray Equipment ..................... 592
16.2.2 Spray Aircraft ................................. 593
16.2.3 Spray Nomograms and Calculations ............... 594
16.2.4 Monitoring, Sampling, and Analytical
Equipment ...................................... 596
16.2.5 Equipment Availability ......................... 596
16.2.6 Equipment Checklist ............................ 597
16.2.7 Conducting the Operation ....................... 597
16.3 Safety and Postdispersion Actions ..................... 598
16.3.1 Worker Health and Safety Precautions ........... 598
16.3.2 Follow-Up Monitoring ........................... 599
Additional Information ................................ 601
Appendix A. Specific Spill Scenarios and Dispersion
Strategies ............................................ 603
Appendix B. Nomograms to Calculate Spreading and
Viscosity with Time ................................... 605
17 Procedures for the Testing and Approval of Oil Spill
Treatment Products in the United Kingdom-What They Are
and Considerations for Development ......................... 611
Mark Kirby
17.1 Background and Introduction ........................... 611
17.1.1. Preassessment Requirements ................... 612
17.2 Toxicity Testing Procedures ........................... 613
17.2.1 Reference Oil .................................. 613
17.2.2 Test water ..................................... 613
17.2.3 The Sea Test ................................... 615
17.3 Test Description ...................................... 615
17.3.1 The Rocky Shore Test ........................... 616
17.3.2 Rationale ...................................... 617
17.3.3 Test Species ................................... 618
17.3.4 Test Description ............................... 618
17.3.5 Test Validity and Pass/Fail Assessment ......... 619
17.4 Testing with Heavy Fuel Oils .......................... 619
17.5 The 2007 UK Scheme Review ............................. 620
17.5.1 Review and Improvement ......................... 620
17.5.2 Specific Issues ................................ 620
17.6 Conclusions ........................................... 626
References ................................................. 627
18 Formulation Changes in Oil Spill Dispersants: Are They
Toxicologically Significant? ............................... 629
Mark F. Kirby, Paula Neall, Jennifer Rooke, and Heather
Yardley
18.1 Introduction .......................................... 629
18.2 Materials and Methods ................................. 630
18.2.1 General Approach ............................... 630
18.2.2 Dispersants and Constituents ................... 631
18.2.3 Toxicity Tests ................................. 631
18.2.4 Testing Schedule ............................... 633
18.3 Results ............................................... 633
18.3.1 Inherent Toxicity of Constituent Chemicals
and Dispersants ................................ 633
18.3.2 Toxicity of Reformulated Dispersants in the
Sea Test ....................................... 634
18.3.3 Toxicity of Reformulated Dispersants in the
Rocky Shore Test ............................... 635
18.3.4 Inherent Toxicity of Reformulated
Dispersants .................................... 635
18.4 Discussion ............................................ 638
18.4.1 Do Formulation Changes Matter? ................. 638
18.4.2 Sea Test ....................................... 639
18.4.3 Rocky Shore Test ............................... 639
18.4.4 Are Specific Constituents of Concern? .......... 640
18.4.5 Significance of Inherent Toxicity Changes of
Formulations? .................................. 641
Acknowledgments ............................................ 641
References ................................................. 642
19 Environment Canada's Methods for Assessing Oil Spill
Treating Agents ............................................ 643
Carl E. Brown, Ben Fieldhouse, Trevor C. Lumley, Patrick
Lambert and Bruce P. Hollebone
19.1 Introduction .......................................... 643
19.2 Toxicity and Effectiveness of Treating Agents for
Oil Spills ............................................ 645
19.2.1 Dispersants .................................... 645
19.2.2 Shoreline-Washing Agents ....................... 653
19.2.3 Deemulsifiers and Emulsion Inhibitors .......... 657
19.2.4 Herding Agents ................................. 658
19.2.5 Recovery Agents ................................ 658
19.2.6 Solidifiers and Gelling Agents ................. 658
19.2.7 Biodegradation Agents .......................... 659
19.2.8 Sinking Agents ................................. 661
19.3 Approval for Use of Treating Agents in Canadian
Waters ................................................ 662
19.4 Challenges to Current Toxicity Test Protocols ......... 662
19.4.1 Endocrine Disrupting Capacity .................. 664
19.4.2 Genotoxicity ................................... 664
19.4.3 Sublethal Effects .............................. 665
19.5 Conclusions ........................................... 666
References ................................................. 667
20 The United States Environmental Protection Agency:
National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution
Contingency Plan, Subpart J Product Schedule (40 Code of
Federal Regulations 300.900) ............................... 673
William J. Nichols
20.1 Introduction .......................................... 673
20.2 Why Is There a Product Schedule? ...................... 674
20.3 Authorities for a Product Schedule .................... 675
20.4 Information Requested from Manufacturers .............. 675
20.5 Agency Activities ..................................... 679
20.6 Practical Utility of the Data ......................... 679
20.7 Authorities for Use ................................... 680
20.8 Federal Agencies' Role within the Regional Response
Team .................................................. 680
20.9 Does Listing Mean the Environmental Protection
Agency Approves and Endorses a Product? ............... 681
20.10 Conclusions .......................................... 681
20.10.1 Proper Uses and Lessons Learned ............... 682
References ................................................. 682
21 Surface-Washing Agents or Beach Cleaners ................... 683
Merv Fingas and Ben Fieldhouse
21.1 Introduction to Surface-Washing Agents ................ 683
21.1.1 Motivations for Using Surface-Washing Agents ... 685
21.1.2 Surface Washing Agent Issues ................... 685
21.1.3 Surface-Washing Agent Chemistry ................ 686
21.2 Review of Major Surface-Washing Agent Issues .......... 686
21.2.1 Effectiveness .................................. 686
21.2.2 Toxicity ....................................... 697
21.3 Other Issues .......................................... 697
21.3.1 Application .................................... 697
21.3.2 Dispersion with Higher Applied Energy .......... 700
21.3.3 Assessment of the Use of Surface-Washing
Agents ......................................... 700
References ............................................ 704
Appendix 21.1 Environment Canada's Test Method ........ 707
Summary ............................................... 707
Method ................................................ 707
EPA Draft Protocol .................................... 709
Summary ............................................... 709
Fieldhouse High-Energy Protocol ....................... 709
22 Review of Solidifiers ...................................... 713
Merv Fingas and Ben Fieldhouse
22.1 Introduction to Solidifiers ........................... 713
22.1.1 Motivations for Using Solidifiers .............. 713
22.1.2 Solidifier Issues .............................. 714
22.1.3 Solidifier Chemistry ........................... 714
22.2 Review of Major Solidifier Issues ..................... 717
22.2.1 Effectiveness .................................. 717
22.2.2 Toxicity ....................................... 728
22.2.3 Biodegradation ................................. 728
22.3 Other Issues .......................................... 728
22.3.1 Spill Size ..................................... 728
22.3.2 Solidifier Use in Recent Times ................. 729
22.3.3 Solidifiers or Sorbents ........................ 729
22.3.4 Potential for Sinking .......................... 729
22.3.5 Modeling Solidifier and Solidified Oil
Behavior and Fate .............................. 729
22.3.6 Solidified Oil Stability ....................... 729
22.3.7 Fate of Unreacted Solidifier ................... 729
22.3.8 Recovery of Solidified Oil ..................... 729
22.3.9 Solidification Time ............................ 730
22.3.10 Application Systems ........................... 730
22.3.11 Reduction of Flash Point ...................... 730
22.3.12 Assessment of the Use of Solidifiers .......... 730
22.3.13 Disposal Methods or Recycling ................. 730
22.4 Summary ............................................... 730
Acknowledgments ....................................... 731
References ............................................ 731
Appendix 22.1. Testing Procedures from Environment
Canada ................................................ 732
Solidifier Test Procedures Used in Early Years ........ 732
Oil Solidifier Effectiveness Test Used 1998 to
Present ............................................... 732
Brief Description of the Test ......................... 733
Equipment and Supplies ................................ 733
Procedure ............................................. 733
Calculation ........................................... 733
23 An Overview of In-Situ Burning ............................. 737
Merv Fingas
23.1 Introduction .......................................... 737
23.2 An Overview of In-Situ Burning ........................ 737
23.2.1 The Science of Burning ......................... 737
23.2.2 Summary of In-Situ Burning Research and
Trials ......................................... 743
23.2.3 How Burns at Sea Are Conducted ................. 750
23.2.4 Advantages and Disadvantages ................... 755
23.2.5 Comparison of Burning to Other Response
Measures ....................................... 756
23.3 Assessment of Feasibility of Burning .................. 758
23.3.1 Burn Evaluation Process ........................ 758
23.3.2 Areas Where Burning May Be Prohibited .......... 758
23.3.3 Regulatory Approvals ........................... 763
23.3.4 Environmental and Health Concerns .............. 765
23.3.5 Oil Properties and Conditions .................. 793
23.3.6 Weather and Ambient Conditions ................. 799
23.3.7 Burning in Special Locations ................... 801
23.3.8 Burning on Land ................................ 806
23.3.9 Burning In or On Ice ........................... 809
23.4 Equipment—Selection, Deployment, and Operation ........ 811
23.4.1 Burning Without Containment .................... 811
23.4.2 Oil Containment and Diversion Methods .......... 814
23.4.3 Ignition Devices ............................... 834
23.4.4 Treating Agents ................................ 849
23.4.5 Support Vessels/Aircraft for At-Sea Burns ...... 851
23.4.6 Monitoring, Sampling, and Analytical
Equipment ...................................... 852
23.4.7 Final Recovery of Residue ...................... 856
23.4.8 Equipment Checklist ............................ 858
23.5 Possible Spill Situations ............................. 858
23.6 Post-Burn Actions ..................................... 870
23.6.1 Follow-Up Monitoring ........................... 870
23.6.2 Estimation of Burn Efficiency .................. 873
23.6.3 Burn Rate ...................................... 877
23.7 Health and Safety Precautions during Burning .......... 878
23.7.1 Worker Health and Safety Precautions ........... 878
23.7.2 Public Health and Safety Precautions ........... 887
23.7.3 Establishing Safety Zones ...................... 888
23.7.4 Monitoring Burn Emissions ...................... 888
Acknowledgments ............................................ 894
References ................................................. 894
Part VIII
Shoreline Countermeasures
24 Shoreline Countermeasures .................................. 907
Edward H. Owens
24.1 Introduction 907
24.1.1 Control At or Near the Source .................. 908
24.1.2 Control on Water ............................... 908
24.1.3 Shoreline Protection Strategy .................. 909
24.1.4 Shoreline Treatment ............................ 909
24.2 Shoreline Treatment Decision Process .................. 910
24.3 Treatment Options ..................................... 912
24.3.1 Natural Recovery ............................... 912
24.3.2 Physical Removal ............................... 913
24.3.3 In-Situ Treatment .............................. 915
24.4 Treatment by Shore Type ............................... 916
24.5 Waste Generation ...................................... 919
References ................................................. 920
25 Automated Assessment and Data Management ................... 923
Alain Lamarche
25.1 Introduction .......................................... 923
25.2 Automated Processing and Data Management: Goals and
Definition ............................................ 924
25.2.1 Understanding the Use of Shoreline Assessment
Data During a Response ......................... 924
25.2.2 The Nature of Shoreline Assessment Data ........ 924
25.2.3 Practical Use of Shoreline Observations ........ 927
25.3 Shoreline Observations Data Processing ................ 929
25.3.1 Data Processing Organization ................... 929
25.3.2 Responsibilities of the Shoreline Assessment
Data Management Team ........................... 931
25.3.3 Data Management Tasks and Processes ............ 935
25.3.4 Why and When to Establish a Shoreline
Assessment Data Management Team ................ 939
25.4 Assessment Automation Methods and Tools ............... 939
25.4.1 Basic Tools .................................... 940
25.4.2 Combining Tools Within a Data Management
Support System ................................. 944
25.4.3 Information Distribution ....................... 947
25.5 Shoreline Assessment Data Management Issues ........... 948
25.5.1 Equipment Failure .............................. 948
25.5.2 Software Corruption ............................ 949
25.5.3 Overwhelming Amounts of Data ................... 949
25.5.4 Conditions Unique to the Response .............. 949
References ............................................ 955
Part IX
Submerged Oil
26 Submerged Oil .............................................. 959
Jacqueline Michel
26.1 Introduction .......................................... 959
26.2 Submerged Oil Characteristics ......................... 961
26.3 Review of Recent Submerged Oil Spills ................. 965
26.3.1 M/V Athos I .................................... 965
26.3.2 T/B DBL-152 .................................... 967
26.3.3 Lake Wabamun Spill ............................. 972
26.4 Submerged Oil Spill Response Methods and
Recommendations for Future Work ....................... 975
26.4.1 Methods for Detection of Oil Suspended in the
Water Column ................................... 975
26.4.2 Methods for Detection of Oil on the Bottom ..... 976
26.4.3 Containment of Suspended Oil/Protection of
Water Intakes .................................. 978
26.4.4 Containment of Submerged Oil on the Bottom ..... 979
26.4.5 Recovery of Submerged Oil on the Bottom ........ 979
References ................................................. 981
Part X
Effects of Oil in the Environment
27 Effects of Oil in the Environment .......................... 985
Gary Shigenaka
27.1 Introduction .......................................... 985
27.2 Some Definitions ...................................... 987
27.3 Size Matters: Seeps vs. Spills ........................ 989
27.4 An "Equation" to Convey Toxic Impact .................. 991
27.5 Route of Exposure: The Anthrax Example ................ 999
27.6 Route of Exposure: Oil ............................... 1000
27.7 Oil Chemistry, Physical Behavior, and Oil Effects .... 1003
27.8 Freshwater/Saltwater Differences ..................... 1008
27.9 Tropical Environments ................................ 1010
27.10 Arctic Environments ............................ 1013
27.11 Ecological Effects of Oil Spills ............... 1014
27.12 The Future of Oil Effects Science .............. 1017
27.13 Summary and Conclusions ........................ 1019
Acknowledgments ........................................... 1019
Disclaimer ................................................ 1019
References ................................................ 1020
Part XI
Contingency Planning and Command
28 Introduction to Oil Spill Contingency Planning and
Response Initiation ....................................... 1027
Merv Fingas
28.1 An Overview of Response to Oil Spills ................ 1027
28.2 Activation of Contingency Plans ...................... 1028
28.3 Training ............................................. 1029
28.4 Structure of Response Organizations .................. 1030
28.5 Oil Spill Cooperatives ............................... 1030
28.6 Private and Government Response Organizations ........ 1031
29 The Role of the International Tanker Owners Pollution
Federation Limited ........................................ 1033
Karen Purnell
30 Safety Issues at Spills ................................... 1037
Quek Qiuhui
30.1 Introduction ......................................... 1037
30.2 Organization Structure ............................... 1037
30.3 Health and Safety Risk Analysis/Risk Assessment ...... 1038
30.4 Air Monitoring ....................................... 1038
30.5 Site Safety and Health Plan .......................... 1043
30.6 Different Types of Hazards on Site ................... 1048
30.7 Recommended Safety Procedures ........................ 1049
30.7.1 Site Evaluation Process ....................... 1049
30.7.2 Site Control Measures ......................... 1050
30.7.3 Personal Protective Equipment ................. 1052
30.7.4 Excessive Noise ............................... 1052
30.7.5 Heat Stress ................................... 1052
30.7.6 Cold Stress ................................... 1054
30.7.7 Monitoring Program ............................ 1054
30.8 Emergency Procedures During a Response ............... 1054
30.8.1 Fire and Explosion ............................ 1054
30.8.2 Hazardous Atmosphere/Hazardous Chemicals ...... 1058
30.8.3 Medical Emergencies ........................... 1058
30.9 Other Issues ......................................... 1059
30.9.1 Personnel Training ............................ 1059
30.9.2 Volunteers .................................... 1059
30.10 Conclusion .......................................... 1062
Acknowledgments ........................................... 1062
References ................................................ 1062
Part XII
Postassessment and Restoration
31 Natural Resource Damage Assessment ........................ 1067
Gary S. Mauseth and Heather Parker
31.1 Introduction ......................................... 1067
31.2 Regulatory Regimes ................................... 1067
31.3 Objectives ........................................... 1069
31.4 Making the Public Whole .............................. 1070
31.4.1 Injury Assessment ............................. 1071
31.4.2 Interpretation of Restoration or
Reinstatement ................................. 1072
31.5 Alternative Sites .................................... 1075
31.6 Use of Models ........................................ 1076
31.7 The NRDA Process in the United States ................ 1077
31.7.1 DOI CERCLA NRDA Regulations ................... 1078
31.7.2 NOAA NRDA Regulations ......................... 1079
Acronyms .................................................. 1081
References ................................................ 1082
32 Seafood Safety and Oil Spills ............................. 1083
Greg Challenger and Gary Mauseth
32.1 Introduction ......................................... 1083
32.2 Seafood Exposure to Oil .............................. 1085
32.3 Spill Response and Seafood Safety Management ......... 1087
32.4 Seafood Safety Assessment: Reopening a Closed
Fishery .............................................. 1090
32.5 Chemical Analytical Evaluation ....................... 1090
32.6 Seafood Sensory Evaluation ........................... 1092
32.7 Trends in Lifting Fishery Bans ....................... 1096
32.8 Long-Term Implications of Oil Spills on Seafood ...... 1098
References ................................................ 1099
Part XIII
Specific Case Studies
33 The Torrey Canyon Oil Spill, 1967 ......................... 1103
Robin J. Law
33.1 Case Study ........................................... 1103
References ................................................ 1105
34 The Ekofisk Bravo Blowout, 1977 ........................... 1107
Robin J. Law
34.1 Case Study ........................................... 1107
References ................................................ 1108
35 The Sea Empress Oil Spill, 1996 ........................... 1109
Robin J. Law
35.1 Introduction ......................................... 1109
35.2 Mechanical Recovery at Sea ........................... 1110
35.3 Dispersant Spraying at Sea ........................... 1111
35.4 Shoreline Cleanup .................................... 1112
35.5 Dispersant Use on Beaches ............................ 1113
35.6 Impacts on Seabirds .................................. 1113
35.7 Mortalities of Fish and Shellfish .................... 1113
35.8 Effects on Fish and Shellfish Stocks and Plankton .... 1114
35.9 Contamination of Fish and Shellfish .................. 1114
35.9.1 Finfish ....................................... 1114
35.9.2 Crustacea ..................................... 1115
35.9.3 Whelks ........................................ 1115
35.9.4 Bivalve Mollusks .............................. 1115
35.10 Removal of Fishery Restrictions ..................... 1115
35.11 Conclusion .......................................... 1116
References ................................................ 1116
36 The Braer Oil Spill, 1993 ................................. 1119
Robin J. Law and Colin F. Moffat
36.1 Introduction ......................................... 1119
36.2 At-Sea and Shoreline Response ........................ 1119
36.3 Fate of the Braer Oil ................................ 1121
36.4 Impacts of the Braer Oil ............................. 1121
36.4.1 On Land ....................................... 1121
36.4.2 On Seabirds ................................... 1121
36.4.3 On Otters and Seals ........................... 1121
36.4.4 On Commercial Fish and Shellfish .............. 1123
36.4.5 On Farmed Salmon .............................. 1124
36.4.6 On Benthic Communities ........................ 1125
36.4.7 On the Human Population ....................... 1125
36.5 Conclusion ........................................... 1125
References ................................................ 1126
37 1991 Gulf War Oil Spill ................................... 1127
Jacqueline Michel
37A Review of the Spill ................................... 1127
References ................................................ 1131
38 Tanker SOLAR 1 Oil Spill, Guimaras, Philippines:
Impacts and Response Challenges ........................... 1133
Ruth Yender and Katharina Stanzel
38.1 Incident Summary ..................................... 1133
38.2 Impact Summary ....................................... 1114
38.3 Shoreline Cleanup .................................... 1139
38.4 Mangrove Cleanup and Recovery ........................ 1143
38.5 Fisheries Impacts and Health Concerns ................ 1144
38.6 Summary .............................................. 1145
Disclaimer ................................................ 1146
References ................................................ 1146
Conversions .................................................. 1147
Index ........................................................ 1149
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