Biosystems Investigated by Scanning Probe Microscopy / ed. by H.Fuchs, B.Bhushan. - Berlin; Heidelberg: Springer, 2010. - xxxii, 834 p. - Incl. bibl. ref. - ISBN 978-3-642-02404-7  Место хранения:   091 | Филиал Института физики полупроводников CO РАН | Oмск

Оглавление / Contents

Part I Instrumentation and Methods Scanning Probe Microscopy in Biological Research ................ 3 Tatsuo Ushiki, Kazushige Kawabata Introduction .................................................... 3 SPM for Visualization of the Surface of Biomaterials ............ 4 Advantages of AFM in Biological Studies ...................... 4 AFM of Biomolecules .......................................... 5 AFM of Isolated Intracellular and Extracellular Structures ... 7 AFM of Tissue Sections ...................................... 10 AFM of Living Cells and Their Movement ...................... 10 Combination of AFM with Scanning Near-Field Optical Microscopy for Imaging Biomaterials ......................... 12 SPM for Measuring Physical Properties of Biomaterials .......... 14 Evaluation Methods of Viscoelasticity ....................... 14 Examples for Viscoelasticity Mapping Measurements ........... 17 Combination of Viscoelasticity Measurement with Other Techniques .................................................. 20 SPM as a Manipulation Tool in Biology .......................... 22 Conclusion ..................................................... 24 References ..................................................... 24 Scanning Probes for the Life Sciences .......................... 27 Andrea M. Ho, Horacio D. Espinosa Introduction ................................................... 27 Microarray Technology .......................................... 28 Microcontact Printing ....................................... 29 Optical Lithography ......................................... 30 Protein Arrays .............................................. 32 Nanoarray Technology ........................................... 33 The Push for Nanoscale Detection ............................ 33 Probe-Based Patterning ...................................... 35 Alternative Patterning Methods .............................. 46 Nanoscale Deposition Mechanisms ................................ 48 AFM Parallelization ............................................ 51 One-Dimensional Arrays ...................................... 52 Two-Dimensional Arrays ...................................... 53 Future Prospects for Nanoprobes ................................ 56 References ..................................................... 58 New AFM Developments to Study Elasticity and Adhesion at the Nanoscale ............................................... 63 Robert Szoszkiewicz, Elisa Riedo Introduction ................................................... 64 Contact Mechanics Theories and Their Limitations ............... 65 Modulated Nanoindentation ...................................... 67 Force-Indentation Curves .................................... 67 Elastic Moduli .............................................. 70 Ultrasonic Methods at Local Scales ............................. 72 Brief Description of Ultrasonic Methods ..................... 72 Applications of Ultrasonic Techniques in Elasticity Mapping ..................................................... 75 UFM Measurements of Adhesion Hysteresis and Their Relations to Friction at the Tip-Sample Contact ............. 76 References ..................................................... 78 Application of SPM and Related Techniques to the Mechanical Properties of Biotool Materials ................................ 81 Thomas Schöberl, Ingomar L. Jäger, Helga С. Lichtenegger Introduction ................................................... 82 Typical Biotool Materials ...................................... 84 Chemistry ................................................... 84 Structures .................................................. 86 Mechanical Properties ....................................... 88 Experimental Methods and Setups ................................ 89 SPM and Indentation ......................................... 89 Scratch and Wear Tests ...................................... 91 Dynamic Modes ............................................... 92 Fracture Toughness Tests .................................... 93 Samples ........................................................ 94 Choice ...................................................... 94 Storage ..................................................... 95 Preparation ................................................. 96 Experimental Conditions ........................................ 97 Moisture .................................................... 97 Temperature ................................................. 98 Probe Tips .................................................. 98 Test Velocity ............................................... 99 Results ........................................................ 99 Sources of Error ............................................ 99 Interpretation ............................................. 104 Examples from the Literature .................................. 105 References .................................................... 108 Direct Force Measurements of Receptor-Ligand Interactions on Living Cells ............................................... 115 Robert H. Eibl Introduction .................................................. 116 Procedure ..................................................... 122 Principle of AFM Force Spectroscopy ........................ 123 Cell-Cell Interactions ..................................... 123 Cell-Substrate Measurements ................................ 126 Specificity and Blocking Antibodies ........................ 128 Activation by SDF-1 ........................................ 131 Protocols ..................................................... 134 Cantilever Functionalization ............................... 134 AFM Measurement on Living Cells ............................ 136 Inhibition with Blocking Antibodies, Peptidomimetic Inhibitors or EDTA ......................................... 139 Activation with Mg2+, Mn2+ Ions, Activating Antibodies, Phorbolester or Chemokines ................................. 140 AFM Measurement-Cell Free .................................. 140 Conclusion and Future Developments ............................ 141 References .................................................... 143 Self-Sensing Cantilever Sensor for Bioscience ................. 147 Hayato Sone, Sumio Hosaka Introduction .................................................. 147 Basics of the Cantilever Mass Sensor .......................... 148 Finite Element Method Simulation of the Cantilever Vibration ..................................................... 151 Detection of Cantilever Deflection ............................ 154 Using a Position Sensor .................................... 154 Using a Piezoresistive Sensor .............................. 155 Self-Sensing Systems .......................................... 160 Vibration Systems .......................................... 160 Vibration-Frequency Detection Systems ...................... 160 Applications .................................................. 161 Water Molecule Detection in Air ............................ 161 Antigen and Antibody Detection in Water .................... 166 Prospective Applications ...................................... 172 References .................................................... 172 Microfabricated Cantilever Array Sensors for (Bio-)Chemical Detection ..................................................... 175 Hans Peter Lang, Martin Hegner, Christoph Gerber Introduction .................................................. 175 Sensors .................................................... 175 Cantilevers ................................................ 176 Cantilever Operating Modes ................................. 178 Cantilever Arrays .......................................... 184 Experimental Setup ............................................ 188 Measurement Chamber ........................................ 188 Cantilever Functionalization ............................... 190 Measurements .................................................. 195 Artificial Nose for Detection of Perfume Essences .......... 196 Label-Free DNA Hybridization Detection ..................... 198 Applications and Outlook ...................................... 201 References .................................................... 202 Nanomechanics and Microfluidics as a Tool for Unraveling Blood Clotting Disease ........................................ 207 D.M. Steppich, S. Thalhammer, A. Wixforth, M.F. Schneider Introduction .................................................. 207 Topography .................................................... 208 Little Story of Blood Clotting ............................. 209 High-Resolution Imaging .................................... 212 Lab-on-a-Chip ................................................. 219 Nanomechanical Diagnostics ................................. 220 Mimicking Blood Flow Conditions on a Surface Acoustic Wave-Driven Biochip ........................................ 222 The Lab on a Chip - AFM - Hybrid .............................. 224 Experimental Setup ......................................... 224 Bundle Relaxation .......................................... 226 Stream Line Manipulation and Flow Sensoring ................ 230 Summary and Outlook ........................................... 234 References .................................................... 235 Quantitative Nanomechanical Measurements in Biology ........... 239 Malgorzata Lekka, Andrzej J. Kulik Stiffness of Biological Samples ............................... 239 Cell Structure ............................................. 239 Determination of Young's Modulus ........................... 242 Brief Overview of the Application of AFM to Studies of Living Cells ............................................... 251 Summary .................................................... 256 Friction Force Microscopy ..................................... 258 Friction and Chemical Force Microscopy ..................... 259 Applications of FFM/CFM .................................... 263 Summary .................................................... 270 References .................................................... 271 Applications of Scanning Near-Field Optical Microscopy in Life Science ............................................... 275 Pietro Giuseppe Gucciardi Introduction .................................................. 276 Experimental Techniques in Near-Field Optical Microscopy ...... 277 Principles of Near-Field Optical Microscopy ................ 277 Fluorescence Near-Field Optical Microscopy ................. 279 Near-Field Optical Microscopy in Liquid .................... 281 Tip-Enhanced Near-Field Optical Microscopy ................. 283 Applications of Near-Field Optical Microscopy in Life Science ....................................................... 284 Infrared Imaging of Tobacco Mosaic Virus with Nanoscale Resolution ................................................. 284 Co-Localization of Malarial and Host Skeletal Proteins in Infected Erythrocytes by Dual-Color Near-Field Fluorescence Microscopy .................................... 285 Co-Localization of a-Sarcoglycan and ВШ-Integrin in Human Muscle Cells by Near-Field Fluorescence Microscopy ......... 287 Single Molecule Near-Field Fluorescence Microscopy of Dendritic Cells ............................................ 288 Chemical Information of Bacterial Surfaces and Detection of DNA Nucleobases by Tip-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy ...... 290 Conclusions ................................................... 291 References .................................................... 292 Scanning Ion Conductance Microscopy ........................... 295 Tilman E. Schäffer, Boris Anczykowski, Harold Fuchs Introduction .................................................. 296 Fundamental Principles ........................................ 296 Basic Setup ................................................ 296 Nanopipettes ............................................... 299 Electrodes ................................................. 300 Ion Currents Through Nanopipettes ............................. 301 Background Theory .......................................... 301 Simple Analytical Model .................................... 301 Finite Element Modeling .................................... 303 Experimental Current-Distance Curves ....................... 305 Imaging with Ion Current Feedback .......................... 306 Advanced Techniques ........................................... 307 Modulation Methods ......................................... 308 Applications in Bioscience ................................. 310 Combination with Other Scanning Techniques .................... 311 Combination with Atomic Force Microscopy ................... 312 Application in Material Science ............................ 312 Combination with Shear Force Microscopy .................... 315 Application in Bioscience .................................. 318 Outlook ....................................................... 319 References .................................................... 320 Scanning Probe Lithography for Chemical, Biological and Engineering Applications ...................................... 325 Joseph M. Kinsella, Albena Ivanisevic Introduction .................................................. 326 Modeling of the DPN Process ................................... 328 Patterning of Biological and Biologically Active Molecules .... 331 DNA Patterning ............................................. 332 Protein Patterning ......................................... 334 Peptide Patterning ......................................... 337 Patterning of Templates for Biological Bottom-Up Assembly ................................................... 339 Chemical Patterning ........................................... 341 Thiols ..................................................... 341 ω-Substituted Thiols ....................................... 342 Silanes and Silazanes ...................................... 343 Deposition of Solid Organic Inks ........................... 344 Polymers ................................................... 345 Polyelectrolytes ........................................... 347 Dendrimers ................................................. 347 Deposition of Supramolecular Materials ..................... 348 Deposition of Metals ....................................... 349 Deposition of Solid-State Materials ........................ 350 Deposition of Magnetic Materials ........................... 351 Engineering Applications of DPN ............................... 352 Future Challenges and Applications ............................ 354 Conclusions ................................................... 355 References .................................................... 355 Scanning Probe Microscopy: From Living Cells to the Subatomic Range ............................................... 359 Ille C. Gebeshuber, Manfred Drack, Friedrich Aumayr, Hannspeter Winter, Friedrich Franek Introduction .............. 359 Cells In Vivo as Exemplified by Diatoms ....................... 360 Introduction to Diatoms .................................... Interaction of Large Organic Molecules ........................ 365 Nanodefects on Atomically Flat Surfaces ....................... 369 Ion Bombardment of Highly Oriented Pyrolytic Graphite (HOPG) ..................................................... 370 Bombardment of Single Crystal Insulators with Multicharged Ions .......................................... 374 Subatomic Features ............................................ 377 Atom Orbitals .............................................. 377 Single Electron Spin Detection with AFM and STM ............ 379 Conclusions and Outlook ....................................... 382 References .................................................... 383 Part II AFM of Biomolecules Atomic Force Microscopy of DNA Structure and Interactions ..... 389 Neil H. Thomson Introduction: The Single-Molecule, Bottom-Up Approach ......... 389 DNA Structure and Function .................................... 391 The Atomic Force Microscope ................................... 393 Binding of DNA to Support Surfaces ............................ 399 Properties of Support Surfaces for Biological AFM .......... 399 DNA Binding to Surfaces .................................... 400 DNA Transport to Surfaces .................................. 404 AFM of DNA Systems ............................................ 405 Static Imaging versus Dynamic Studies ...................... 405 The Race for Reproducible Imaging of Static DNA ............ 406 Applications of Tapping-Mode AFM to DNA Systems ............ 408 Outlook ....................................................... 419 References .................................................... 421 Nanostructuration and Nanoimaging of Biomolecules for Biosensors .................................................... 427 Claude Martelet, Nicole Jaffrezic-Renault, Yanxia Hou, Abdelhamid Errachid, Frangois Bessueille Introduction and Definition of Biosensors ..................... 427 Definition ................................................. 427 Biosensor Components ....................................... 427 Immobilization of the Bioreceptor .......................... 428 Langmuir-Blodgett and Self-Assembled Monolayers as Immobilization Techniques ..................................... 429 Langmuir-Blodgett Technique ................................ 429 Self-Assembled Monolayers .................................. 438 Characterization of SAMs and LB Films ...................... 450 Prospects and Conclusion ...................................... 455 References .................................................... 457 Part III AFM of Biological Membranes, Cells and Tissue Imaging Chemical Groups and Molecular Recognition Sites on Live Cells Using AFM ....................................... 463 David Alsteens, Vincent Dupres, Etienne Dague, Claire Verbelen, Guillaume André, Grégory Francius, Yves F. Dufrêne Introduction .................................................. 463 Chemical Force Microscopy ..................................... 464 Methods .................................................... 464 Probing Hydrophobic Forces ................................. 465 Chemical Force Microscopy of Live Cells .................... 468 Molecular Recognition Imaging ................................. 472 Spatially Resolved Force Spectroscopy ...................... 473 Immunogold Imaging ......................................... 475 Conclusions ................................................... 477 References .................................................... 477 Single-Molecule Studies on Cells and Membranes Using the Atomic Force Microscope ....................................... 479 Ferry Kienberger, Lilia A. Chtcheglova, Andreas Ebner, Theeraporn Puntheeranurak, Hermann J. Gruber, Peter Hinterdorfer Introduction .................................................. 480 Principles of Atomic Force Microscopy ......................... 481 Imaging of Membrane-Protein Complexes ......................... 482 Membranes of Photosynthetic Bacteria and Bacterial S-Layers ................................................... 482 Nuclear Pore Complexes ..................................... 484 Cell Membranes with Attached Viral Particles ............... 484 Single-Molecule Recognition on Cells and Membranes ............ 488 Principles of Recognition Force Measurements ............... 488 Force-Spectroscopy Measurements on Living Cells ............ 491 Unfolding and Refolding of Single-Membrane Proteins ........... 495 Simultaneous Topography and Recognition Imaging on Cells (TREC) ........................................................ 497 Concluding Remarks ............................................ 500 References .................................................... 501 Atomic Force Microscopy: Interaction Forces Measured in Phospholipid Monolayers, Bilayers, and Cell Membranes ......... 505 Zoya Leonenko, David Cramb, Matthias Amrein, Eric Finot Introduction .................................................. 505 Phase Transitions of Lipid Bilayers in Water .................. 507 Morphology Change During Lamellar Phase Transition ......... 508 Change in Forces During Phase Transition ................... 510 Force Measurements on Pulmonary Surfactant Monolayers in Air ........................................................... 517 Adhesion Measurements: Monolayer Stiffness and Function .... 519 Repulsive Forces: The Interaction of Charged Airborne Particles with Surfactant .................................. 520 Interaction Forces Measured on Lung Epithelial Cells in Buffer ........................................................ 522 Cell Culture/Force Measurement Setup ....................... 523 Mechanical Properties ...................................... 525 Conclusions ................................................... 528 References .................................................... 529 Atomic Force Microscopy Studies of the Mechanical Properties of Living Cells ............................................... 533 Félix Rico, Ewa P. Wojcikiewicz, Vincent T. Moy Introduction .................................................. 533 Principle of Operation ........................................ 534 AFM Imaging ................................................ 536 Force Measurements ......................................... 536 Cell Viscoelasticity .......................................... 537 AFM Tip Geometries ......................................... 538 Elasticity: Young's Modulus ................................ 538 Viscoelasticity: Complex Shear Modulus ..................... 540 Cell Adhesion .............................................. 542 Concluding Remarks and Future Directions ...................... 548 References .................................................... 549 Application of Atomic Force Microscopy to the Study of Expressed Molecules in or on a Single Living Cell ............. 555 Hyonchol Kim, Hironori Uehara, Rehana Afrin, Hiroshi Sekiguchi, Hideo Arakawa, Toshiya Osada, Atsushi Ikai Introduction .................................................. 556 Methods of Manipulation To Study Molecules in or on a Living Cell Using an AFM ............................................. 557 AFM Tip Preparation To Manipulate Receptors on a Cell Surface .................................................... 557 Analysis of Molecular Interactions Where Multiple Bonds Formed ..................................................... 559 Measurement of Single-Molecule Interaction Strength on Soft Materials ............................................. 561 Observation of the Distribution of Specific Receptors on a Living Cell Surface ......................................... 562 Distribution of Fibronectin Receptors on a Living Fibroblast Cell ............................................ 562 Distribution of Vitronectin Receptors on a Living Osteoblast Cell ............................................ 565 Quantification of the Number of Prostaglandin Receptors on a Chinese Hamster Ovary Cell Surface .................... 567 Further Application of the AFM to the Study of Single-Cell Biology ....................................................... 570 Manipulation of Expressed mRNAs in a Living Cell Using an AFM ........................................................ 570 Manipulation of Membrane Receptors on a Living Cell Surface Using an AFM ....................................... 576 References .................................................... 579 Towards a Nanoscale View of Microbial Surfaces Using the Atomic Force Microscope ....................................... 583 Claire Verbelen, Guillaume Andre, Xavier Haulot, Yann Gilbert, David Alsteens, Etienne Dague, Yves F. Dufrêne Introduction .................................................. 583 Imaging ....................................................... 584 Sample Preparation ......................................... 584 Visualizing Membrane Proteins at Subnanometer Resolution ... 584 Live-Cell Imaging .......................................... 585 Force Spectroscopy ............................................ 588 Customized Tips ............................................ 588 Probing Nanoscale Elasticity and Surface Properties ........ 589 Stretching Cell Surface Polysaccharides and Proteins ....... 591 Nanoscale Mapping and Functional Analysis of Molecular Recognition Sites .......................................... 592 Conclusions ................................................... 595 References .................................................... 596 Cellular Physiology of Epithelium and Endothelium ............. 599 Christoph Riethmüller, Hans Oberleithner Introduction .................................................. 599 Epithelium .................................................... 600 Transport Through a Septum ................................. 600 In the Kidney .............................................. 602 Endothelium ................................................... 608 Paracellular Gaps .......................................... 609 Cellular Drinking .......................................... 611 Wound Healing .............................................. 614 Transmigration of Leukocytes ............................... 615 Technical Remarks ............................................. 616 Summary ....................................................... 617 References .................................................... 617 Nanotribological Characterization of Human Hair and Skin Using Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) ........................... 621 Bharat Bhushan, Carmen LaTorre Introduction................................................... 621 Human Hair, Skin, and Hair Care Products ...................... 625 Human Hair and Skin ........................................ 625 Hair Care: Cleaning and Conditioning Treatments, and Damaging Processes ......................................... 632 Experimental Techniques ....................................... 637 Experimental Procedure ..................................... 639 Hair and Skin Samples ...................................... 643 Results and Discussion ........................................ 645 Surface Roughness, Friction, and Adhesion for Various Ethnicities of Hair ........................................ 645 Surface Roughness, Friction, and Adhesion for Virgin and Chemically Damaged Caucasian Hair (with and without Commercial Conditioner Treatment ........................... 656 Surface Roughness, Friction, and Adhesion for Hair Treated with Various Combinations of Conditioner Ingredients ................................................ 664 Investigation of Directionality Dependence and Scale Effects on Friction and Adhesion of Hair ................... 671 Surface Roughness and Friction of Skin ..................... 684 Closure ....................................................... 684 References .................................................... 688 Appendix ...................................................... 689 Evaluating Tribological Properties of Materials for Total Joint Replacements Using Scanning Probe Microscopy ...... 691 Sriram Sundararajan, Kanaga Karuppiah Kanaga Subramanian Introduction .................................................. 691 Total Joint Replacements ................................... 691 Social and Economic Significance ........................... 692 Problems Associated with Total Joint Replacements ............. 692 Tribology .................................................. 694 Materials .................................................. 694 Lubrication in Joints-the Synovial Fluid ................... 695 Conventional Tribological Testing of Material Pairs for Total Joint Replacements ...................................... 696 Wear Tests ................................................. 696 Friction Tests ............................................. 696 Scanning Probe Microscopy as a Tool to Study Tribology of Total Joint Replacements ...................................... 696 Nanotribology of Ultrahigh Molecular Weight Polyethylene ... 697 Fretting Wear of Cobalt-Chromium Alloy ..................... 705 Summary and Future Outlook .................................... 709 References .................................................... 710 Atomic Force Microscopy in Nanomedicine ....................... 713 Dessy Nikova, Tobias Lange, Hans Oberleithner, Hermann Schillers, Andreas Ebner, Peter Hinterdorfer AFM in Biological Sciences .................................... 713 Plasma Membrane Preparation for AFM Imaging ................... 716 Introduction ............................................... 716 Plasma Membrane Preparation ................................ 717 Atomic Force Microscopy .................................... 719 Part IV Functional Bio(-inspired) Surfaces Lotus Effect: Roughness-Induced Superhydrophobicity ........... 741 Michael Nosonovsky, Bharat Bhushan Introduction .................................................. 741 Contact Angle Analysis ........................................ 744 Homogeneous Solid-Liquid Interface ......................... 745 Composite Solid-Liquid-Air Interface ....................... 748 Stability of the Composite Interface ....................... 751 Calculation of the Contact Angle for Selected Rough Surfaces and Surface Optimization ...................................... 759 Two-Dimensional Periodic Profiles .......................... 760 Three-Dimensional Surfaces ................................. 763 Surface Optimization for Maximum Contact Angle ............. 769 Meniscus Force ................................................ 771 Sphere in Contact with a Smooth Surface .................... 771 Multiple-Asperity Contact .................................. 773 Experimental Data ............................................. 774 Closure ....................................................... 777 References .................................................... 778 Gecko Feet: Natural Attachment Systems for Smart Adhesion- Mechanism, Modeling, and Development of Bio-Inspired Materials ..................................................... 781 Bharat Bhushan, Robert A. Sayer Introduction .................................................. 781 Tokay Gecko ................................................... 782 Construction of Tokay Gecko ................................ 782 Other Attachment Systems ................................... 785 Adaptation to Surface Roughness ............................ 787 Peeling .................................................... 788 Self-Cleaning .............................................. 790 Attachment Mechanisms ......................................... 792 Van der Waals Forces ....................................... 792 Capillary Forces ........................................... 793 Experimental Adhesion Test Techniques and Data ................ 794 Adhesion Under Ambient Conditions .......................... 795 Effects of Temperature ..................................... 797 Effects of Humidity ........................................ 798 Effects of Hydrophobicity .................................. 798 Adhesion Modeling ............................................. 799 Spring Model ............................................... 801 Single Spring Contact Analysis ............................. 801 The Multilevel Hierarchical Spring Analysis ................ 803 Adhesion Results for the Gecko Attachment System Contacting a Rough Surface ................................. 806 Capillarity Effects ........................................ 810 Adhesion Results that Account for Capillarity Effects ...... 811 Modeling of Biomimetic Fibrillar Structures ................... 814 Fiber Model ................................................ 814 Single Fiber Contact Analysis .............................. 814 Constraints ................................................ 815 Numerical Simulation ....................................... 819 Results and Discussion ..................................... 821 Fabrication of Biomimetric Gecko Skin ......................... 828 Single-Level Hierarchical Structures ....................... 829 Multilevel Hierarchical Structures ......................... 833 Closure ....................................................... 835 Appendix ...................................................... 836 References .................................................... 839