 | Barry R.G. The global cryosphere: past, present, and future / R.G.Barry, T.Y.Gan. - Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011. - xv, 472 p.: ill., maps. - Ref.: p.358-457. - Ind.: p.458-472. - ISBN 978-0-521-15685-1
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Preface ........................................................ xi
Ackowledgements ............................................... xii
1 Introduction ................................................. 1
1.1 Definition and extent ................................... 1
1.2 The role of the cryosphere in the climate system ....... 4
1.3 The organization of cryospheric observations and
research ................................................ 5
1.4 Remote sensing of the cryosphere ........................ 6
Part I The terrestrial cryosphere ............................... 9
2A Snowfall and snow cover ..................................... 11
2.1 History ................................................ 11
2.2 Snow formation ......................................... 12
2.3 Snow cover ............................................. 14
2.4 Snow cover modeling in land surface schemes of GCMs .... 22
2.5 Snow interception by the canopy ........................ 24
2.6 Sublimation ............................................ 26
2.7 Snow metamorphism ...................................... 28
2.8 In situ measurements of snow ........................... 30
2.9 Remote sensing of snowpack properties and snow-cover
area ................................................... 33
2.10 Snowmelt modeling ...................................... 45
2.11 Recent observed snow cover changes ..................... 62
2B Avalanches .................................................. 72
2.12 History ................................................ 72
2.13 Avalanche characteristics .............................. 73
2.14 Avalanche models ....................................... 79
2.15 Trends in avalanche conditions ......................... 83
3 Glaciers and ice caps ....................................... 85
3.1 History ................................................ 85
3.2 Definitions ............................................ 87
3.3 Glacier characteristics ................................ 88
3.4 Mass balance ........................................... 97
3.5 Remote sensing ......................................... 99
3.6 Glacier flow and flowlines ............................ 102
3.7 Scaling ............................................... 108
3.8 Glacier modeling ...................................... 109
3.9 Icecaps ............................................... 111
3.10 Glacier hydrology ..................................... 114
3.11 Changes in glaciers and ice caps ...................... 121
4 Ice sheets ................................................. 138
4.1 History of exploration ................................ 138
4.2 Mass balance .......................................... 141
4.3 Remote sensing ........................................ 142
4.4 Mechanisms of ice sheet changes ....................... 144
4.5 The Greenland Ice Sheet ............................... 145
4.6 Antarctica ............................................ 152
4.7 Overall ice sheet changes ............................. 159
4.8 Ice sheet models ...................................... 159
4.9 Ice sheet and ice shelf interaction ................... 162
4.10 Ice sheet contributions to sea level change ........... 163
5 Frozen ground and permafrost ............................... 165
5.1 History ............................................... 165
5.2 Frozen ground definitions and extent .................. 167
5.3 Thermal relationships ................................. 169
5.4 Vertical characteristics of permafrost ................ 172
5.5 Remote sensing ........................................ 176
5.6 Ground ice ............................................ 178
5.7 Permafrost models ..................................... 182
5.8 Geomorphological features associated with permafrost .. 183
5.9 Changes in permafrost and soil freezing ............... 185
6 Freshwater ice ............................................. 190
6.1 History ............................................... 190
6.2 Lake ice .............................................. 191
6.3 Changes in lake ice cover ............................. 199
6.4 River ice ............................................. 202
6.5 Trends in river ice cover ............................. 211
6.6 Icings ................................................ 213
Part II The marine cryosphere ................................. 219
7 Sea ice .................................................... 221
7.1 History ............................................... 221
7.2 Sea ice characteristics ............................... 223
7.3 Ice drift and ocean circulation ....................... 248
7.4 Sea ice models ........................................ 254
7.5 Leads, polynyas, and pressure ridges .................. 258
7.6 Ice thickness ......................................... 263
7.7 Trends in sea ice extent and thickness ................ 265
8 Ice shelves and icebergs ................................... 276
8.1 History ............................................... 276
8.2 Ice shelves ........................................... 277
8.3 Ice streams ........................................... 283
8.4 Conditions beneath ice shelves ........................ 284
8.5 Ice shelf buttressing ................................. 286
8.6 Icebergs .............................................. 286
8.7 Ice islands ........................................... 296
Part III The cryosphere past and future ....................... 297
9 The cryosphere in the past ................................. 299
9.1 Introduction .......................................... 299
9.2 Snowball Earth and ice-free Cretaceous ................ 300
9.3 Phanerozoic glaciations ............................... 302
9.4 Late Cenozoic polar glaciations ....................... 303
9.5 The Quaternary ........................................ 306
9.6 The Holocene .......................................... 314
10 The future cryosphere: impacts of global warming ........... 318
10.1 Introduction .......................................... 318
10.2 General observations .................................. 319
10.3 Recent cryospheric changes ............................ 321
10.4 Climate projections ................................... 321
10.5 Projected changes to Northern Hemisphere snow cover ... 324
10.6 Projected changes in land ice ......................... 326
10.7 Projected permafrost changes .......................... 328
10.8 Projected changes in freshwater ice ................... 329
10.9 Projected sea ice changes ............................. 331
Part IV Applications .......................................... 333
11 Applications of snow and ice research ...................... 335
11.1 Snowfall .............................................. 335
11.2 Freezing precipitation ................................ 336
11.3 Avalanches ............................................ 337
11.4 Ice avalanches ........................................ 339
11.5 Winter sports industry ................................ 339
11.6 Water resources ....................................... 340
11.7 Hydropower ............................................ 340
11.8 Snow melt floods ...................................... 341
11.9 Freshwater ice ........................................ 342
11.10 Ice roads ............................................ 343
11.11 Sea ice .............................................. 344
11.12 Glaciers and ice sheets .............................. 345
11.13 Icebergs ............................................. 347
11.14 Permafrost and ground ice ............................ 347
11.15 Seasonal ground freezing ............................. 349
Glossary ...................................................... 350
References .................................................... 358
Index ......................................................... 458
Color plates between pp. 210 and 211
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