Preface ...................................................... xiii
Author ......................................................... xv
1 Introduction ................................................. 1
1.1 Preamble ................................................ 1
1.2 Different Forms of Energy ............................... 2
1.3 Primary Sources of Energy ............................... 2
1.4 Non-Fossil Fuel Based Energy ............................ 4
1.4.1 Hydropower ....................................... 4
1.4.2 Ocean/Wave Energy ................................ 4
1.4.3 Wind Energy ...................................... 4
1.4.4 Solar Energy ..................................... 5
1.4.5 Geothermal Energy ................................ 9
1.4.6 Nuclear Energy ................................... 9
1.5 Considering the Losses of Energy from Its Production
Source to Its Point of Consumption ..................... 10
1.6 Energy Resources Exploitation .......................... 11
1.7 Synopsis ............................................... 12
Bibliography ................................................ 13
2 Fuels in General ............................................ 15
2.1 Introduction ........................................... 15
2.2 Some of the Main Desirable Properties of Fuels ......... 16
2.3 Some Relevant Units of Measurement ..................... 17
2.4 Some Patterns of Fuel and Energy Resources and Usage ... 20
2.5 Definitions of Reserves ................................ 21
2.6 Some General Observations about Fuel and Energy
Statistics ............................................. 23
2.7 Changes in the Consumption of Different Sources of
Energy ................................................. 24
2.8 Problems ............................................... 26
2.9 Synopsis ............................................... 30
Bibliography ................................................ 30
3 Fuels Classification ........................................ 33
3.1 Fossil Fuels ........................................... 33
3.2 Hydrocarbon Fuels ...................................... 33
3.2.1 Paraffinic Series, CnH2n+2 (Saturated,
All with Single "C" Bonds) ...................... 34
3.2.2 Olefin Series, CnH2n (Unsaturated with One
Double Bond between Two С Atoms ................. 34
3.2.3 Acetylene Series, CnH2n-2 (Unsaturated with
One Triple Bond between Two С Atoms) ............ 36
3.2.4 Naphthenes or Cycloparaffins, CnH2n (Closed
Chain with Single and Saturated Bonds) .......... 36
3.2.5 Aromatics, CnH2n-6 (Unsaturated Ring
Compounds) ...................................... 37
3.3 Some Oxygenated Compounds .............................. 38
3.4 Problems ............................................... 40
3.5 Synopsis ............................................... 41
Bibliography ................................................ 41
4 Fuel-Consuming Energy Systems ............................... 43
4.1 Fuel-Consuming Work-Producing Devices .................. 43
4.2 Work and Heat .......................................... 44
4.3 Efficiency ............................................. 45
4.4 Fuel Energy Systems .................................... 47
4.4.1 Internal Combustion Engines ..................... 47
4.4.1.1 Various Types of Reciprocating
Engines ................................ 48
4.5 Cogeneration ........................................... 52
4.6 Fuel Consumption ....................................... 54
4.7 Hybrid Engines ......................................... 56
4.8 Choice of Energy Systems ............................... 57
4.9 Problems ............................................... 58
4.10 Synopsis ............................................... 58
Bibliography ................................................ 59
5 Stoichiometry and Thermodynamics ............................ 61
5.1 Heating Value of Fuels ................................. 61
5.2 Adiabatic Flame Temperature ............................ 63
5.3 Procedure for Calculating the Temperature and
Composition of the Products of Combustion, When
Equilibrium Conditions Are Assumed ..................... 74
5.4 Calorimeters ........................................... 78
5.5 Some Solved Examples ................................... 78
5.6 Problems ............................................... 86
5.7 Synopsis ............................................... 90
Bibliography ................................................ 90
6 Chemical Kinetics of Fuel Combustion ........................ 93
6.1 Chemical Reactions ..................................... 93
6.2 Combustion Chemical Kinetics ........................... 96
6.3 Solved Examples ....................................... 103
6.4 Modeling Fuel Combustion Reactions .................... 103
6.5 Types of Chemical Reactions Relevant to Fuels and
Energy ................................................ 106
6.6 Problems .............................................. 107
6.7 Synopsis .............................................. 108
Bibliography ............................................... 108
7 Exhaust Emissions from the Combustion of Fuels ............. 111
7.1 Products of Combustion of Fuels ....................... 111
7.2 Air Pollution Control ................................. 113
7.3 Catalytic Converters .................................. 119
7.4 Greenhouse Effect ..................................... 121
7.5 Sulfur in Fuels ....................................... 125
7.6 Fuel-Induced Corrosion of Metals ...................... 126
7.7 Solved Example ........................................ 126
7.8 Problems .............................................. 127
7.9 Synopsis .............................................. 128
Bibliography ............................................... 129
8 Combustion and Flames ...................................... 131
8.1 Combustion, Flames, and Ignition Processes ............ 131
8.2 Diffusion Flames versus Premixed Flames ............... 135
8.3 Combustion Stability Characteristics .................. 142
8.4 Fuel Combustion via Burners and Orifices .............. 145
8.5 Combustion of Solid Fuels ............................. 146
8.6 Solid Fuels Combustion Using Fluidized Beds ........... 148
8.7 Problems .............................................. 150
8.8 Synopsis .............................................. 151
Bibliography ............................................... 152
9 Fire and Safety in Relation to Fuel Installations and
Handling ................................................... 155
9.1 Fuel Fires ............................................ 155
9.2 Flammability Limits of Fuels .......................... 156
9.3 Some Protective Measures .............................. 162
9.4 FlashPoint ............................................ 164
9.5 Some Terms Related to Fuel Fires and Safety ........... 167
9.6 Solved Example ........................................ 168
9.7 Problems .............................................. 170
9.8 Synopsis .............................................. 172
Bibliography ............................................... 173
10 Petroleum .................................................. 175
10.1 Petroleum Reservoirs .................................. 175
10.2 Oil Recovery .......................................... 177
10.3 Enhanced Oil Recovery Methods ......................... 178
10.4 Oil Sands ............................................. 182
10.5 Oil Shale ............................................. 186
10.6 Problems .............................................. 188
10.7 Synopsis .............................................. 188
Bibliography ............................................... 189
11 Refining of Petroleum ...................................... 191
11.1 Need for Refining ..................................... 191
11.2 Refining Chemical Processes ........................... 196
11.3 Catalysts and Their Action ............................ 197
11.4 Controls through Codes and Standards .................. 198
11.5 Problems .............................................. 199
11.6 Synopsis .............................................. 199
Bibliography ............................................... 199
12 Gasoline ................................................... 201
12.1 Spark Ignition Gasoline-Fueled Engines ................ 201
12.2 Volatility ............................................ 203
12.3 Additives to Gasoline ................................. 206
12.4 Catalysts ............................................. 207
12.5 Spark Ignition Engine Knock ........................... 207
12.6 Some Features of Engine Knock ......................... 209
12.7 Some Negative Effects of Knock in Spark Ignition
Engines ............................................... 210
12.8 Operational Knock Limits .............................. 211
12.9 Octane Number ......................................... 213
12.10 Effects of Engine Variables for Increased Incidence
of Knock ............................................. 213
12.11 Knock Control ........................................ 215
12.12 Three-Way Catalyst ................................... 215
12.13 Problems ............................................. 216
12.14 Synopsis ............................................. 217
Bibliography ............................................... 218
13 Diesel Fuels and Some Other Liquid Fuels ................... 221
13.1 Diesel Engine Combustion Processes .................... 221
13.2 Ignition Delay in Diesel Engines ...................... 222
13.3 Diesel Engine Fuels ................................... 223
13.4 Diesel Engine Emissions ............................... 228
13.5 Biodiesel Fuels ....................................... 229
13.6 Fischer-Tropsch Diesel ................................ 230
13.7 Dual-Fuel Engine ...................................... 230
13.8 Liquid Fuels for Aviation Applications ................ 231
13.9 Heavy Fuels for Boiler and Furnace Applications ....... 234
13.10 Liquid and Solid Propellents ......................... 234
13.11 Solved Example ....................................... 235
13.12 Problems ............................................. 236
13.13 Some Definitions Associated with Liquid Fuels ........ 237
13.14 Synopsis ............................................. 239
Bibliography ............................................... 239
14 Solid Fuels ................................................ 241
14.1 Combustion of Solid Fuels ............................. 241
14.2 Coal .................................................. 241
14.3 Case for Coal ......................................... 244
14.4 Some Properties of Coal ............................... 246
14.5 Classification of Coals ............................... 248
14.6 Solved Examples ....................................... 249
14.7 Coal Combustion in Fluidized Beds ..................... 251
14.8 Gasification of Coal .................................. 252
14.9 Underground Gasification of Coal ...................... 254
14.10 Other Solid Fuels .................................... 254
14.11 Coal Bed Methane ..................................... 257
14.12 Solid Fuels as Propellants ........................... 257
14.13 Solved Example ....................................... 258
14.14 Problems ............................................. 259
14.15 Synopsis ............................................. 260
Bibliography ............................................... 260
15 Natural Gas and Other Gaseous Fuels ........................ 263
15.1 Merits of Operation on Gaseous Fuels .................. 263
15.2 Natural Gas ........................................... 265
15.3 Natural Gas Transmission .............................. 271
15.4 Flaring of Fuel Gases ................................. 275
15.5 Liquefied Natural Gas ................................. 276
15.6 LNG Safety ............................................ 277
15.7 Hydrates of Methane ................................... 278
15.8 Comparison of Features of Natural-Gas-Fueled Gas
Turbines with Those of Spark Ignition Engines ......... 279
15.9 Propane and Liquefied Petroleum Gas ................... 280
15.10 Solved Example ....................................... 281
15.11 LPG Safety ........................................... 284
15.12 Some Common Non-Natural Gas Mixtures ................. 285
15.13 Landfill Gases ....................................... 288
15.14 Biogas Fuels ......................................... 289
15.15 Hydrogen Sulfide ..................................... 290
15.16 Solved Examples ...................................... 291
15.17 Problems ............................................. 295
15.18 Some Gaseous Fuel Mixture Terms ...................... 296
15.19 Synopsis ............................................. 296
Bibliography ............................................... 297
16 Alternative Fuels .......................................... 301
16.1 Introduction .......................................... 301
16.2 Applications .......................................... 303
16.3 Alcohols as Fuels ..................................... 304
16.4 Hydrogen as a Fuel .................................... 306
16.5 Liquid Hydrogen ....................................... 310
16.6 Compressed Natural Gas ................................ 311
16.7 Problems .............................................. 313
16.8 Synopsis .............................................. 313
Bibliography ............................................... 314
Glossary ...................................................... 317
References .................................................... 325
Index ......................................................... 333
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