1 Archaeological Chemistry ..................................... 1
1.1 Archaeological Chemistry ................................ 2
1.2 Terms and Concepts ...................................... 4
1.2.1 Matter ........................................... 5
1.2.2 Organic Matter ................................... 6
1.2.3 The Electromagnetic Spectrum ..................... 9
1.2.4 Measurement ..................................... 11
1.2.5 Accuracy, Precision, and Sensitivity ............ 12
1.2.6 Samples, Aliquots, and Specimens ................ 13
1.2.7 Data, Lab Records, and Archives ................. 15
1.3 A Brief History of Archaeological Chemistry ............ 15
1.4 Laboratories ........................................... 19
1.4.1 A Tour of the Laboratory for Archaeological
Chemistry ....................................... 20
1.5 Summary ................................................ 23
Suggested Readings .......................................... 24
2 What Archaeologists Want To Know ............................ 25
2.1 Archaeological Cultures ................................ 26
2.2 Time and Space ......................................... 27
2.3 Environment ............................................ 28
2.4 Technology ............................................. 29
2.5 Economy ................................................ 30
2.5.1 Food ............................................ 30
2.5.2 Shelter ......................................... 31
2.5.3 Raw Material and Production ..................... 31
2.5.4 Exchange ........................................ 32
2.6 Organization ........................................... 34
2.6.1 Social Organization ............................. 34
2.6.2 Political Organization .......................... 34
2.6.3 Settlement Pattern .............................. 36
2.7 Ideology ............................................... 38
2.8 Summary ................................................ 39
Suggested Readings .......................................... 39
3 Archaeological Materials .................................... 41
3.1 Introduction ........................................... 41
3.2 Archaeological Materials ............................... 41
3.3 Rock ................................................... 42
3.4 Pottery ................................................ 47
3.5 Bone ................................................... 49
3.6 Sediment and Soil ...................................... 51
3.7 Metals ................................................. 55
3.8 Other Materials ........................................ 58
3.8.1 Glass ........................................... 59
3.8.2 Pigments and Dyes ............................... 62
3.8.3 Concretes, Mortars, and Plasters ................ 66
3.8.4 Shell ........................................... 68
3.9 Summary ................................................ 70
Suggested Readings .......................................... 71
4 Methods of Analysis ......................................... 73
4.1 Magnification .......................................... 74
4.1.1 Optical Microscopes ............................. 75
4.1.2 Scanning Electron Microscope .................... 76
4.2 Elemental Analysis ..................................... 78
4.2.1 Spectroscopy .................................... 81
4.2.2 Inductively Coupled Plasma-Optical Emission
Spectrometer .................................... 84
4.2.3 X-Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy ................. 86
4.2.4 CN Analyzer ..................................... 88
4.2.5 Neutron Activation Analysis ..................... 89
4.3 Isotopic Analyses ...................................... 90
4.3.1 Oxygen Isotopes ................................. 91
4.3.2 Carbon and Nitrogen Isotopes .................... 92
4.3.3 Strontium Isotopes .............................. 94
4.3.4 Mass Spectrometers .............................. 98
4.4 Organic Analysis ...................................... 102
4.4.1 Methods of Organic Analysis .................... 109
4.4.2 Gas/Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry .... 109
4.5 Mineral and Inorganic Compounds ....................... 115
4.5.1 Petrography .................................... 116
4.5.2 X-Ray Diffraction .............................. 119
4.5.3 IR Spectroscopy ................................ 120
4.6 Summary ............................................... 122
Suggested Readings ......................................... 126
5 Identification and Authentication .......................... 127
5.1 What Archaeological Chemistry Can Do .................. 127
5.2 Identification and Authentication ..................... 128
5.3 Identification ........................................ 129
5.3.1 Starch Grains and Early Agriculture ............ 131
5.3.2 Pacific Plant Identification ................... 132
5.3.3 Keatley Creek House Floors ..................... 136
5.3.4 ChacoCoco ...................................... 139
5.4 Authentication ........................................ 142
5.4.1 The Getty Museum Kouros ........................ 143
5.4.2 Vinl and Map ................................... 147
5.4.3 Maya Crystal Skulls ............................ 149
5.4.4 The Shroud of Turin ............................ 151
Suggested Readings ......................................... 154
6 Technology, Function, and Human Activity ................... 155
6.1 Technology ............................................ 156
6.1.1 The Discovery of Fire .......................... 157
6.1.2 Maya Blue ...................................... 160
6.2 Function .............................................. 164
6.2.1 Microwear Analysis ............................. 165
6.2.2 Danish Pottery ................................. 168
6.3 Human Activity ........................................ 173
6.3.1 Phosphate and Uppakra .......................... 175
6.3.2 Ritual Activities in the Templo Mayor
(Mexico) ....................................... 177
6.3.3 Lejre House Floor .............................. 180
Suggested Readings ......................................... 186
7 Environment and Diet ....................................... 187
7.1 Environment ........................................... 188
7.1.1 Greenland Vikings .............................. 191
7.1.2 The Maya Collapse .............................. 195
7.2 Diet .................................................. 19^
7.2.1 Carbon Isotopes ................................ 199
7.2.2 Nitrogen Isotopes .............................. 202
7.2.3 Arizona Cannibals .............................. 203
7.2.4 Last Danish Hunters ............................ 206
7.2.5 Cape Town Slaves ............................... 208
Suggested Readings ......................................... 211
8 Provenience and Provenance ................................. 213
8.1 Provenience and Provenance ........................... 213
8.1.1 Ecuadorian Pottery ............................. 219
8.1.2 Lead Glaze on Mexican Ceramics ................. 221
8.1.3 European Copper in North America ............... 224
8.1.4 Turkish Obsidian ............................... 227
8.1.5 Pinson Mounds Pottery .......................... 229
8.1.6 Mexican Pyramid ................................ 234
8.1.7 A Maya King .................................... 238
Suggested Readings ......................................... 241
9 Conclusions ................................................ 243
9.1 Multiple Investigations ............................... 245
9.1.1 Italian Iceman ................................. 245
9.2 Ethical Considerations ................................ 252
9.2.1 Destructive Analysis ........................... 253
9.2.2 The Study of Human Remains ..................... 254
9.3 What Does the Future Hold? ............................ 256
9.4 In the End ............................................ 257
Suggested Readings ......................................... 258
Appendix ...................................................... 259
Glossary ...................................................... 263
References .................................................... 275
Figure Credits ................................................ 301
Index ......................................................... 305
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