Foreword to the World Scientific Series on Current Energy
Issues .......................................................... v
Introduction to Energy from the Nucleus ........................ ix
Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Nuclear Fission ...................... 1
Bertrand Barré
1 Introduction ................................................. 1
2 Radioactivity, Fission, Fusion ............................... 2
3 How Does A Nuclear Reactor Operate? .......................... 6
4 Reactor Types ................................................ 9
5 The Nuclear Fuel Cycle ...................................... 10
5.1 Uranium resources ...................................... 11
5.2 Exploration, mining, and concentration ................. 12
5.3 Conversion and isotopic enrichment ..................... 13
5.4 Fuel manufacture (PWR) ................................. 14
5.5 Open cycle or closed cycle? ............................ 15
5.6 Reprocessing and vitrification ......................... 16
6 Economics ................................................... 17
7 Non-Proliferation ........................................... 19
7.1 Brief history .......................................... 19
7.2 Proliferation and civilian nuclear technologies ........ 20
8 Conclusion .................................................. 21
References .................................................. 21
Chapter 2: Current and Future Fission Power Plants ............. 23
Bertrand Barré
1 Introduction ................................................ 23
2 "Generations" of Nuclear Reactors (Fig. 3) .................. 26
3 Plants in Operation (Generation II Reactors) ................ 27
3.1 Pressurized water reactors (PWRs) ...................... 27
3.2 Boiling water reactors (BWRs) .......................... 27
3.3 Gas-cooled reactors (Magnox, AGR, HTR) ................. 28
3.4 Heavy water reactors (PHWR or Candu) ................... 28
3.5 Light water graphite reactors .......................... 28
3.6 Fast breeder reactors (FBRs) ........................... 29
4 Generation III .............................................. 29
4.1 AP 1000 ................................................ 30
4.2 The evolutionary power reactor (EPR) ................... 32
4.3 Other Gen III plants ................................... 34
5 Generation IV Nuclear Systems ............................... 35
5.1 The Generation IV International Fonnn (GIF) ............ 35
5.2 International Project on Innovative Nuclear reactors
& Fuel Cycles (INPRO) .................................. 37
5.3 Fast breeders (SFR, LFR, GFR) .......................... 37
5.4 Other Gen IV Concepts .................................. 39
6 Small and Medium (or Modular) Reactors (SMR) ................ 40
7 The Thorium Cycle ........................................... 42
References .................................................. 45
Chapter 3: Nuclear Safety and Waste Management ................. 47
Bertrand Barré
1 Nuclear Safety .............................................. 47
1.1 Introduction ........................................... 47
1.2 Barriers and defense-in-depth .......................... 48
1.3 The International Nuclear Events Scale (INES) .......... 49
1.4 Three Mile Island, March 28, 1979 ...................... 51
1.5 Chernobyl, April 28, 1986 .............................. 54
1.6 Fukushima Daiichi ...................................... 56
1.7 Lessons learned from Fukushima: The "Stress Tests" ..... 60
2 Radioactive Waste Management and Decommissioning ............ 61
2.1 Waste categories ....................................... 61
2.2 Radioactive waste disposal ............................. 62
2.3 Decommissioning ........................................ 63
2.4 The Oklo phenomenon .................................... 64
References .................................................. 67
Chapter 4: Indirect-Drive Inertial Confinement Fusion .......... 69
Erik Storm and John D. Lindl
1 Introduction ................................................ 70
2 The Physics of ICF .......................................... 71
2.1 Review of Basic Concepts ............................... 71
2.2 DT Burn Physics ........................................ 73
2.3 Compression and Central Ignition ....................... 75
2.4 Fluid Instabilities, Mix and Low Entropy Implosions .... 77
2.5 Indirect and Direct Drive Approach to Hot Spot
Ignition ICF ........................................... 78
2.6 Alternative Ignition Concepts .......................... 81
2.7 Summary of ICF Target Performance ...................... 82
3 Progress towards Ignition with Laser Indirect-Drive ICF ..... 83
3.1 Research — The first 40 Years .......................... 83
3.2 Laser Indirect-Drive Ignition Studies on the NIF ....... 85
3.3 The High Foot Campaign ................................. 87
3.4 Adiabat Shaped Implosions .............................. 89
3.5 Rugby Hohlraum Implosions .............................. 91
3.6 Alternate Capsule and Hohlraums ........................ 92
3.7 Status of ICF Implosions on NIF ........................ 93
3.8 Extending NIF Ignition Designs to IFE .................. 94
4 IFE Systems ................................................. 95
4.1 Review of IFE basics ................................... 95
4.2 IFE Metrics ............................................ 97
4.3 IFE Subsystems: Targets, Driver, Chamber, and
Balance of Plant ....................................... 99
4.4 Self-Consistent IFE Systems ........................... 102
5 Progress towards Technologies for Laser Indirect-Drive
IFE ........................................................ 105
6 Conclusion ................................................. 111
References ................................................. 113
Chapter 5: Direct-Drive Laser Fusion .......................... 121
John Sethian
1 Introduction ............................................... 121
2 History of Direct-Drive Laser IFE Power Plant Concepts ..... 125
3 The Justification for Developing the Laser Direct-Drive
Approach ................................................... 127
4 Reactor and Target Performance Considerations .............. 128
5 Direct-Drive IFE Class Target Designs ...................... 130
6 Lasers for Direct-Drive Inertial Fusion .................... 135
6.1 DPSSL laser state-of-the-art .......................... 136
6.2 KrF laser basics ...................................... 137
6.3 KrF laser state of the art ............................ 138
6.3.1 Electron beam emitter (cathode) ................ 138
6.3.2 Electron beam stability ........................ 138
6.3.3 Beam transport and deposition .................. 139
6.3.4 Electron beam window durability ................ 140
6.3.5 Electron beam window thermal management ........ 140
6.3.6 KrF physics code ............................... 140
7 State of the Art of other Technologies needed for IFE ...... 142
7.1 Final optical train ................................... 142
7.2 Target fabrication .................................... 143
7.3 Target injection ...................................... 144
7.3.1 Injector ....................................... 144
7.3.2 Tracking ....................................... 144
7.3.3 Survival into the chamber ...................... 145
7.4 The reaction chamber .................................. 147
7.4.1 Solid wall chamber ............................. 149
7.4.2 Magnetic intervention .......................... 151
7.5 Chamber breeding, tritium handhng and power
management ............................................ 151
8 A Plan to Develop Laser Direct-Drive Fusion ................ 152
8.1 The three phases of the development plan .............. 153
8.1.1 Phase I: Develop full scale components ......... 153
8.1.2 Phase II: The fusion test facility ............. 153
8.1.3 Phase III: Build a pilot power plant ........... 153
8.2 Description of the FTP ................................ 153
8.2.1 FTF target designs ............................. 154
8.2.2 FTF laser ...................................... 154
8.2.3 The other components of the FTF and tritium
breeding ....................................... 155
8.2.4 The FTF as a material and component
development platform ........................... 155
8.3 Timescale to deliver direct-drive IFE ................. 156
9 Other Approaches to IFE .................................... 156
9.1 Heavy ion fusion ...................................... 156
9.2 Pulsed power driven fusion ............................ 157
9.3 Fast ignition ......................................... 157
10 The Path Forward ........................................... 158
11 Glossary ................................................... 159
References ................................................. 161
Chapter 6: Magnetic Fusion Energy ............................. 165
M.C. Zarnstorff and R.J. Goldston
1 Overview ................................................... 165
2 MFE Physics and Technology ................................. 170
2.1 Breakeven, gain and ignition .......................... 170
2.2 Magnetic confinement .................................. 172
2.2.1 Transport and turbulence ....................... 172
2.2.2 Stability ...................................... 174
2.2.3 Sustainment .................................... 174
2.2.4 Plasma-material interaction .................... 175
2.2.5 Neutron-material interaction (including
tritium breeding) .............................. 176
2.2.6 Magnets ........................................ 176
2.2.7 Magnetic field configurations .................. 177
3 Progress Toward Fusion Energy .............................. 179
3.1 National and international research facilities ........ 179
3.2 Theory and modeling ................................... 181
4 Development Plans and Design Studies ....................... 181
4.1 National and international development of fusion
energy ................................................ 181
4.2 Private development of fusion energy .................. 186
5 Summary .................................................... 186
References ................................................. 187
Chapter 7: Creating A Star — The Global ITER Partnership ...... 189
M. Uhran
1 Introduction ............................................... 189
2 The ITER Partnership ....................................... 191
2.1 From INTOR to ITER .................................... 191
2.2 Provisions of the joint implementation agreement
(JIA) ................................................. 193
3 Project Life Cycle ......................................... 193
3.1 Design and construction phase ......................... 194
3.2 Operations phase ...................................... 194
3.3 Decommissioning phase ................................. 194
4 Fusion R&D laboratory complex, St. Paullez-Durance,
France ..................................................... 194
5 Status of the ITER Project (2015) .......................... 195
6 Tokamak Design ............................................. 198
7 Major Elements and Distributed Systems ..................... 200
8 Power Supply ............................................... 201
8.1 Pulsed load ........................................... 202
8.2 Superconducting magnets ............................... 202
9 TF Coils ................................................... 205
10 PF Coils ................................................... 206
10.1 Correction coils ...................................... 207
10.2 Central solenoid ...................................... 207
10.3 Vacuum vessel and internal elements ................... 209
10.4 Blanket system ........................................ 210
10.5 In-vessel coils ....................................... 211
10.6 Divertor .............................................. 211
10.7 Cryostat and thermal shield ........................... 213
10.8 Fueling ............................................... 213
10.9 Plasma heating ........................................ 215
10.10 System cooling ....................................... 216
10.11 Biological shield .................................... 216
10.12 Instrumentation & controls ........................... 218
10.13 Diagnostic instruments ............................... 218
10.14 Control, Data Access, and Communication (CODAC) ...... 219
11 Research Plan .............................................. 220
12 Safety and Licensing ....................................... 223
13 The Coming Era of Burning Hydrogen Plasma .................. 225
References ................................................. 227
About the Contributors ........................................ 229
Index ......................................................... 235
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