Walker I.R. Reliability in scientific research: improving the dependability of measurements, calculations, equipment and software (Cambridge; New York, 2011). - ОГЛАВЛЕНИЕ / CONTENTS
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ОбложкаWalker I.R. Reliability in scientific research: improving the dependability of measurements, calculations, equipment and software. - Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011. - xxi, 587 p.: ill. - Incl. bibl. ref. - Ind.: p.564-587. - ISBN 978-0-521-85770-3
 

Оглавление / Contents
 
Preface ....................................................... xix
List of abbreviations ......................................... xxi

1    Basic principles of reliability, human error, and other
     general issues ............................................. 1
1.1  Introduction ............................................... 1
1.2  Central points ............................................. 1
1.3  Human factors .............................................. 5
     1.3.1  General methods and habits .......................... 5
     1.3.2  Data on human error ................................. 8
     1.3.3  Some ways of reducing human error .................. 11
     1.3.4  Interpersonal and organizational issues ............ 20
1.4  Laboratory procedures and strategies ...................... 24
     1.4.1  Record-keeping ..................................... 24
     1.4.2  Maintenance and calibration of equipment ........... 25
     1.4.3  Troubleshooting equipment and software ............. 25
1.5  Reliability of information ................................ 28
     Further reading ........................................... 31
     Summary of some important points .......................... 31
     References ................................................ 34

2    Mathematical calculations ................................. 36
2.1  Introduction .............................................. 36
2.2  Sources and kinds of error ................................ 36
     2.2.1  Conceptual problems ................................ 36
     2.2.2  Transcription errors ............................... 36
     2.2.3  Errors in technique ................................ 36
     2.2.4  Errors caused by subconscious biases ............... 38
     2.2.5  Errors in published tables ......................... 38
     2.2.6  Problems arising from the use of computer algebra
            systems ............................................ 39
     2.2.7  Errors in numerical calculations ................... 40
2.3  Strategies for avoiding errors ............................ 42
     2.3.1  Avoiding conceptual difficulties ................... 42
     2.3.2  Use of diagrams .................................... 42
     2.3.3  Notation ........................................... 43
     2.3.4  Keeping things simple .............................. 43
     2.3.5  Use of modularity .................................. 44
     2.3.6  Finding out what is known .......................... 44
     2.3.7  Outsourcing the problem ............................ 44
     2.3.8  Step-by-step checking and correction ............... 45
     2.3.9  Substitution of numbers for variables .............. 45
     2.3.10 Practices for manual calculations .................. 45
     2.3.11 Use of computer algebra software ................... 46
     2.3.12 Avoiding transcription errors ...................... 46
2.4  Testing for errors ........................................ 46
     2.4.1  General remarks .................................... 46
     2.4.2  Getting the correct result for the wrong reason .... 47
     2.4.3  Predicting simple features of the solution from
            those of the problem ............................... 47
     2.4.4  Dimensional analysis ............................... 48
     2.4.5  Further checks involving internal consistency ...... 48
     2.4.6  Existence of a solution ............................ 49
     2.4.7  Reasonableness of the result ....................... 49
     2.4.8  Check calculations ................................. 49
     2.4.9  Comparing the results of the calculation against
            known results ...................................... 51
     2.4.10 Detecting errors in computer algebra calculations .. 52
     Summary of some important points .......................... 53
     References ................................................ 55

3    Basic issues concerning hardware systems .................. 58
3.1  Introduction .............................................. 58
3.2  Stress derating ........................................... 58
3.3  Intermittent failures ..................................... 60
     3.3.1  Introduction ....................................... 60
     3.3.2  Some causes and characteristics .................... 60
     3.3.3  Preventing and solving intermittent problems ....... 62
3.4  Effects of environmental conditions ....................... 63
     3.4.1  Excessive laboratory temperatures and the cooling
            of equipment ....................................... 63
     3.4.2  Moisture ........................................... 65
3.5  Problems caused by vibrations ............................. 68
     3.5.1  Introduction ....................................... 68
     3.5.2  Large-amplitude vibration issues ................... 69
     3.5.3  Interference with measurements ..................... 71
3.6  Electricity supply problems ............................... 83
     3.6.1  Definitions and causes of power disturbances ....... 83
     3.6.2  Investigating power disturbances ................... 85
     3.6.3  Measures for preventing a.c. power problems ........ 86
3.7  Damage and deterioration caused by transport .............. 91
     3.7.1  Common difficulties ................................ 91
     3.7.2  Conditions encountered during transport ............ 91
     3.7.3  Packaging for transport ............................ 93
     3.7.4  Specialist companies for packaging and
            transporting delicate equipment .................... 95
     3.7.5  Insurance .......................................... 95
     3.7.6  Inspection of received items ....................... 96
     3.7.7  Local transport of delicate items .................. 96
3.8  Some contaminants in the laboratory ....................... 96
     3.8.1  Corrosive atmospheres in chemical laboratories ..... 96
     3.8.2  Oil and water in compressed air supplies ........... 96
     3.8.3  Silicones .......................................... 97
3.9  Galvanic and electrolytic corrosion ....................... 99
3.10 Enhanced forms of materials degradation related to
     corrosion ................................................ 100
3.11 Fatigue of materials ..................................... 101
     3.11.1 Introduction ...................................... 101
     3.11.2 Prevalence and examples of fatigue ................ 101
     3.11.3 Characteristics and causes ........................ 102
     3.11.4 Preventive measures ............................... 104
3.12 Damage caused by ultrasound .............................. 104
     Summary of some important points ......................... 105
     References ............................................... 111

4    Obtaining items from commercial sources .................. 116
4.1  Introduction ............................................. 116
4.2  Using established technology and designs ................. 116
4.3  The importance of standards .............................. 117
4.4  Understanding the basics of a technology ................. 117
4.5  Price and quality ........................................ 118
4.6  Choice of manufacturers and equipment .................... 119
     4.6.1  Reliability assessments based on experiences of
            product users ..................................... 119
     4.6.2  Place of origin of a product ...................... 119
     4.6.3  Specialist vs. generalist manufacturers ........... 120
     4.6.4  Limitations of ISO9001 and related standards ...... 120
     4.6.5  Counterfeit parts ................................. 120
     4.6.6  True meaning of specifications .................... 120
     4.6.7  Visiting the manufacturer's facility .............. 121
     4.6.8  Testing items prior to purchase ................... 121
4.7  Preparing specifications, testing, and transport and
     delivery ................................................. 122
     4.7.1  Preparing specifications for custom-made
            apparatus ......................................... 122
     4.7.2  Documentation requirements ........................ 122
     4.7.3  Reliability incentive contracts ................... 122
     4.7.4  Actions to take before delivery ................... 123
     4.7.5  Acceptance trials for major equipment ............. 124
4.8  Use of manuals and technical support ..................... 124
     Summary of some important points ......................... 125
     References ............................................... 126

5    General points regarding the design and construction of
     apparatus ................................................ 127
5.1  Introduction ............................................. 127
5.2  Commercial vs. self-made items ........................... 127
5.3  Time issues .............................................. 128
5.4  Making incremental advances in design .................... 129
5.5  Making apparatus fail-safe ............................... 129
5.6  The use of modularity in apparatus design ................ 130
5.7  Virtual instruments ...................................... 131
5.8  Planning ahead ........................................... 132
5.9  Running the apparatus on paper before beginning
     construction ............................................. 133
5.10 Testing and reliability .................................. 134
5.11 Designing apparatus for diagnosis and maintainability .... 134
5.12 Design for graceful failure .............................. 135
5.13 Component quality ........................................ 135
5.14 Ergonomics and aesthetics ................................ 135
     Further reading .......................................... 136
     Summary of some important points ......................... 136
     References ............................................... 137

6    Vacuum-system leaks and related problems ................. 138
6.1  Introduction ............................................. 138
6.2  Classifications of leak-related phenomena ................ 139
6.3  Common locations and circumstances of leaks .............. 140
6.4  Importance of modular construction ....................... 141
6.5  Selection of materials for use in vacuum ................. 142
     6.5.1  General points .................................... 142
     6.5.2  Leak testing raw materials ........................ 143
     6.5.3  Stainless steel ................................... 144
     6.5.4  Brass ............................................. 146
     6.5.5  Phosphor bronze ................................... 146
     6.5.6  Copper-nickel ..................................... 146
     6.5.7  Copper ............................................ 146
     6.5.8  Aluminum .......................................... 147
6.6  Some insidious sources of contamination and outgassing ... 147
     6.6.1  Cleaning agents ................................... 147
     6.6.2  Vacuum-pump fluids and substances ................. 148
     6.6.3  Vacuum greases .................................... 149
     6.6.4  Other type of contamination ....................... 149
     6.6.5  Some common causes of contamination in UHV
            systems ........................................... 150
6.7  Joining procedures: welding, brazing, and soldering ...... 150
     6.7.1  Worker qualifications and vacuum joint leak
            requirements ...................................... 150
     6.7.2  General points .................................... 151
     6.7.3  Reduced joint-count designs and monolithic
            construction ...................................... 154
     6.7.4  Welding ........................................... 154
     6.7.5  Brazing ........................................... 157
     6.7.6  Soldering ......................................... 158
6.8  Use of guard vacuums to avoid chronic leak problems ...... 164
6.9  Some particularly trouble-prone components ............... 165
     6.9.1  Items involving fragile materials subject to
            thermal and mechanical stresses ................... 165
     6.9.2  Water-cooled components ........................... 166
     6.9.3  Metal bellows ..................................... 167
     6.9.4  Vacuum gauges ..................................... 170
6.10 Diagnostics .............................................. 170
     6.10.1 Leak detection .................................... 170
     6.10.2 Methods of detecting and identifying
            contamination ..................................... 179
6.11 Leak repairs ............................................. 179
     Summary of some important points ......................... 181
     References ............................................... 187

7    Vacuum pumps and gauges, and other vacuum-system
     concerns ................................................. 190
7.1  Introduction ............................................. 190
7.2  Vacuum pump matters ...................................... 190
     7.2.1  Primary pumps ..................................... 190
     7.2.2  High-vacuum pumps ................................. 195
7.3  Vacuum gauges ............................................ 207
     7.3.1  General points .................................... 207
     7.3.2  Pirani and thermocouple gauges .................... 208
     7.3.3  Capacitance manometers ............................ 208
     7.3.4  Penning gauges .................................... 209
     7.3.5  Bayard-Alpert ionization gauges ................... 209
7.4  Other issues ............................................. 210
     7.4.1  Human error and manual valve operations ........... 210
     7.4.2  Selection of bakeout temperatures for UHV
            systems ........................................... 211
     7.4.3  Cooling of electronics in a vacuum ................ 212
     Further reading .......................................... 213
     Summary of some important points ......................... 213
     References ............................................... 216

8    Mechanical devices and systems ........................... 218
8.1  Introduction ............................................. 218
8.2  Mechanical devices ....................................... 218
     8.2.1  Overview of conditions that reduce reliability .... 218
     8.2.2  Some design approaches for improving mechanism
            reliability ....................................... 219
     8.2.3  Precision positioning devices in optical systems .. 223
     8.2.4  Prevention of damage due to exceeding mechanical
            limits  ........................................... 224
     8.2.5  Bearings .......................................... 224
     8.2.6  Gears in vacuum environments ...................... 227
     8.2.7  Lubrication and wear under extreme conditions ..... 227
     8.2.8  Static demountable seals .......................... 233
     8.2.9  Dynamic seals and motion feedthroughs ............. 246
     8.2.10 Valves ............................................ 250
8.3  Systems for handling liquids and gases ................... 260
     8.3.1  Configuration of pipe networks .................... 260
     8.3.2  Selection of materials ............................ 260
     8.3.3  Construction issues ............................... 261
     8.3.4  Problems caused by PTFE tape ...................... 262
     8.3.5  Filter issues ..................................... 262
     8.3.6  Detection and location of leaks ................... 263
8.4  Water-cooling systems .................................... 263
     8.4.1  Introduction ...................................... 263
     8.4.2  Water leaks ....................................... 265
     8.4.3  Water purity requirements ......................... 268
     8.4.4  System materials selection and corrosion .......... 270
     8.4.5  Condensation ...................................... 270
     8.4.6  Water flow and temperature interlocks and
            indicators ........................................ 271
     8.4.7  Inspection of water-cooled equipment .............. 271
     Further reading .......................................... 271
     Summary of some important points ......................... 272
     References ............................................... 280

9    Cryogenic systems ........................................ 285
9.1  Introduction ............................................. 285
9.2  Difficulties caused by the delicate nature of cryogenic
     apparatus ................................................ 286
9.3  Difficulties caused by moisture .......................... 288
9.4  Liquid-helium transfer problems .......................... 289
9.5  Large pressure buildups within sealed spaces ............. 290
9.6  Blockages of cryogenic liquid and gas lines .............. 291
9.7  Other problems caused by the presence of air in
     cryostats ................................................ 293
9.8  Cryogen-free low temperature systems ..................... 293
9.9  Heat leaks ............................................... 294
9.10 Thermal contact problems ................................. 296
     9.10.1 Introduction ...................................... 296
     9.10.2 Welded and brazed contacts ........................ 296
     9.10.3 Mechanical contacts ............................... 296
9.11 1 К pots ................................................. 300
9.12 Thermometry .............................................. 301
     9.12.1 Two common causes of thermometer damage ........... 301
     9.12.2 Measurement errors due to poor thermal
            connections ....................................... 301
     9.12.3 Measurement errors due to RF heating and
            interference ...................................... 301
     9.12.4 Causes of thermometer calibration shifts .......... 302
     9.12.5 Other thermometer issues .......................... 303
9.13 Problems arising from the use of superconducting
     magnets .................................................. 303
     Further reading .......................................... 305
     Summary of some important points ......................... 305
     References ............................................... 308

10   Visible and near-visible optics .......................... 310
10.1 Introduction ............................................. 310
10.2 Temperature variations in the optical path ............... 310
10.3 Temperature changes in optical elements and support
     structures ............................................... 312
10.4 Materials stability ...................................... 314
10.5 Etalon fringes ........................................... 315
10.6 Contamination of optical components ...................... 318
     10.6.1 Introduction ...................................... 318
     10.6.2 A closer look at some contamination-sensitive
            systems and devices ............................... 321
     10.6.3 Measures for protecting optics .................... 323
     10.6.4 Inspection ........................................ 326
     10.6.5 Cleaning of optical components .................... 327
10.7 Degradation of optical materials ......................... 333
     10.7.1 Problems with IR and UV materials caused by
            moisture, and thermal and mechanical shocks ....... 333
     10.7.2 Degradation of materials by UV light
            ("solarization") .................................. 334
     10.7.3 Corrosion and mold growth on optical surfaces ..... 334
     10.7.4 Some exceptionally durable optical materials ...... 335
10.8 Fiber optics ............................................. 337
     10.8.1 Mechanical properties ............................. 337
     10.8.2 Resistance to harsh environments .................. 337
     10.8.3 Insensitivity to crosstalk and EMI, and
            sensitivity to environmental disturbances ......... 337
10.9 Light sources ............................................ 338
     10.9.1 Noise and drift ................................... 338
     10.9.2 Some lasers and their reliability issues .......... 341
     10.9.3 Some incoherent light sources ..................... 343
10.10 Spatial filters ......................................... 344
10.11 Photomultipliers and other light detectors .............. 344
10.12 Alignment of optical systems ............................ 345
     Further reading .......................................... 345
     Summary of some important points ......................... 345
     References ............................................... 350

11   Electronic systems ....................................... 353
11.1 Introduction ............................................. 353
11.2 Electromagnetic interference ............................. 353
     11.2.1 Grounding and ground loops ........................ 353
     11.2.2 Radio-frequency interference ...................... 370
     11.2.3 Interference from low-frequency magnetic fields ... 379
     11.2.4 Some EMI issues involving cables, including
            crosstalk between cables .......................... 381
     11.2.5 Professional assistance with EMI problems ......... 382
11.3 High-voltage problems: corona, arcing, and tracking ...... 382
     11.3.1 The phenomena and their effects ................... 382
     11.3.2 Conditions likely to result in discharges ......... 383
     11.3.3 Measures for preventing discharges ................ 384
     11.3.4 Detection of corona and tracking .................. 386
11.4 High-impedance systems ................................... 387
     11.4.1 The difficulties .................................. 387
     11.4.2 Some solutions .................................... 388
11.5 Damage and electromagnetic interference caused by
     electrostatic discharge (ESD) ............................ 390
     11.5.1 Origins, character, and effects of ESD ............ 390
     11.5.2 Preventing ESD problems ........................... 393
11.6 Protecting electronics from excessive voltages ........... 394
11.7 Power electronics ........................................ 395
11.8 Some trouble-prone components ............................ 397
     11.8.1 Switches and related devices ...................... 397
     11.8.2 Potentiometers .................................... 400
     11.8.3 Fans .............................................. 400
     11.8.4 Aluminium electrolytic capacitors ................. 401
     11.8.5 Batteries ......................................... 401
     11.8.6 Low-frequency signal transformers ................. 403
     Further reading .......................................... 403
     Summary of some important points ......................... 404
     References ............................................... 409

12   Interconnecting, wiring, and cabling for electronics ..... 413
12.1 Introduction ............................................. 413
12.2 Permanent or semi-permanent electrical contacts .......... 414
     12.2.1 Soldering ......................................... 414
     12.2.2 Crimping, brazing, welding, and the use of
            fasteners ......................................... 422
     12.2.3 Summary of methods for making contacts to
            difficult materials ............................... 425
     12.2.4 Ground contacts ................................... 429
     12.2.5 Minimization of thermoelectric EMFs in low-level
            d.c. circuits ..................................... 430
12.3 Connectors ............................................... 431
     12.3.1 Introduction ...................................... 431
     12.3.2 Failure modes ..................................... 431
     12.3.3 Causes of connector failure ....................... 433
     12.3.4 Selection of connectors ........................... 437
     12.3.5 Some particularly troublesome connector types ..... 445
     12.3.6 Some points concerning the use of connectors ...... 448
12.4 Cables and wiring ........................................ 451
     12.4.1 Modes of failure .................................. 451
     12.4.2 Cable damage and degradation ...................... 452
     12.4.3 Selection of cables and cable assemblies .......... 454
     12.4.4 Electromagnetic interference ...................... 456
     12.4.5 Some comments concerning GP-IB and ribbon cables .. 462
     12.4.6 Additional points on the use of cables ............ 463
     12.4.7 Wire issues - including cryostat wiring ........... 466
12.5 Diagnostics .............................................. 471
     12.5.1 Introduction ...................................... 471
     12.5.2 Detection of contact problems ..................... 471
     12.5.3 High-resistance and open- and short-circuit
            intermittent faults ............................... 472
     12.5.4 Use of infrared thermometers on high-current
            contacts .......................................... 473
     12.5.5 Insulation testing ................................ 474
     12.5.6 Fault detection and location in cables ............ 474
     12.5.7 Determining cable-shield integrity ................ 475
     Summary of some important points ......................... 475
     References ............................................... 482

13   Computer hardware and software, and stored information ... 487
13.1 Introduction ............................................. 487
13.2 Computers and operating systems .......................... 487
     13.2.1 Selection ......................................... 487
     13.2.2 Some common causes of system crashes and other
            problems .......................................... 489
     13.2.3 Information and technical support ................. 490
13.3 Industrial PCs and programmable logic controllers ........ 490
13.4 Some hardware issues ..................................... 491
     13.4.1 Hard-disc drives .................................. 491
     13.4.2 Power supplies .................................... 494
     13.4.3 Mains-power quality and the use of power-
            conditioning devices .............................. 495
     13.4.4 Compatibility of hardware and software ............ 496
     13.4.5 RS-232 and IEEE-488 (GP-IB) interfaces ............ 496
     13.5 Backing up information .............................. 499
     13.5.1 Introduction and general points ................... 499
     13.5.2 Some backup techniques and strategies ............. 499
     13.5.3 Online backup services ............................ 500
13.6 Long-term storage of information and the stability of
     recording media .......................................... 500
13.7 Security issues .......................................... 502
     13.7.1 General points .................................... 502
     13.7.2 Viruses and their effects ......................... 502
     13.7.3 Symptoms of virus infection ....................... 503
     13.7.4 Measures for preventing virus attacks ............. 503
     13.7.5 Network security .................................. 504
13.8 Reliability of commercial and open-source software ....... 504
     13.8.1 Avoiding early releases and beta software ......... 504
     13.8.2 Questions for software suppliers .................. 505
     13.8.3 Pirated software .................................. 506
     13.8.4 Open-source software .............................. 506
13.9 Safety-related applications of computers ................. 507
13.10 Commercial data-acquisition software .................... 507
     13.10.1 Data-acquisition applications and their
             properties ....................................... 507
     13.10.2 Graphical languages .............................. 507
     13.10.3 Some concerns with graphical programming ......... 508
     13.10.4 Choosing a data-acquisition application .......... 509
13.11 Precautions for collecting experimental data over
      extended periods ........................................ 509
13.12 Writing software ........................................ 510
     13.12.1 Introduction ..................................... 510
     13.12.2 Planning ahead - establishing code requirements
             and designing the software ....................... 511
     13.12.3 Detailed program design and construction ......... 514
     13.12.4 Testing and debugging ............................ 523
13.13 Using old laboratory software ........................... 526
     Further reading .......................................... 527
     Summary of some important points ......................... 527
     References ............................................... 533

14   Experimental method ...................................... 536
14.1 Introduction ............................................. 536
14.2 Knowing apparatus and software ........................... 536
14.3 Calibration and validation of apparatus .................. 537
14.4 Control experiments ...................................... 538
14.5 Failure of auxiliary hypotheses as a cause of failure
     of experiments ........................................... 540
14.6 Subconscious biases as a source of error ................. 540
     14.6.1 Introduction ...................................... 540
     14.6.2 Some circumstances in which the effects of
            biases can be especially significant .............. 541
     14.6.3 Subconscious biases in data analysis .............. 541
     14.6.4 Subconscious biases caused by social
            interactions ...................................... 542
14.7 Chance occurrences as a source of error .................. 543
14.8 Problems involving material samples ...................... 543
     14.8.1 Introduction ...................................... 543
     14.8.2 The case of polywater ............................. 544
     14.8.3 Some useful measures .............................. 546
14.9 Reproducibility of experimental measurements and
     techniques ............................................... 547
     14.9.1 Introduction ...................................... 547
     14.9.2 Tacit knowledge ................................... 548
     14.9.3 Laboratory visits as a way of acquiring missing
            expertise ......................................... 548
     14.9.4 A historical example: measuring the Q of
            sapphire .......................................... 549
14.10 Low signal-to-noise ratios and statistical signal
      processing .............................................. 551
14.11 Some important mistakes, as illustrated by early work
      on gravity-wave detection ............................... 552
     14.11.1 Introduction ..................................... 552
     14.11.2 A brief outline and history ...................... 552
     14.11.3 Origins of the problems .......................... 553
     14.11.4 Conclusions ...................................... 557
14.12 Understanding one's apparatus and bringing it under
     control: the example of the discovery of superfluidity
     in He3 ................................................... 558
     Further reading .......................................... 559
     Summary of some important points ......................... 560
     References ............................................... 562

 Index ........................................................ 564


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